Dedication
To Michelle Holmes, who has always been by my side, encouraging me to move forward even when things were strange and the fate was high, she never lived me alone. Michelle, you are open and sincere, I love that, you courage my courage, is what has brought me to where I am and who I am. Real, Success lies on the hands of those believing in the Beauty of their Dreams.
But, How Privacy is Privacy? Thank you
1. Introduction
Education has been the back-borne for development in any country, being it formal or informal. Tanzania took over the responsibility of financing her schools soon after the declaration of the Tanganyika independence 1961. Before that, the responsibility was rested on the shoulders of the colony and religious institutions.
Investing in human capital and mobilization of resources plays a great role in the development processes. It is important to invest in education; but the question remains intact, whose responsibility is this? Should this be taken by the government or by the community?
This means that, there is a great need to produce education services regardless of how long and how much is going to cost; we need to invest many resources in education production process. Galabawa (2001, p.1) identified major resources for production of education service as being labor, land and capital.
1.1 Background
Schools in Tanzania has passed several periods regarding means of rising revenues for the school, most of the public schools were funded by government where in 1970’s there was abolition of fees for the primary education, such a situation increased high community mobilization on education, the outcome of abolishment of fees was the increased participation, efficiency and increased education spending.
Private schools as discussed by Galabawa (1995, p.69) are either schools resulted from community support, trust or whole community. The effective existence of these schools therefore was after the liberalization policy of 1980s -1990s. This has contributed to the declining participation, access and low internal efficiency of education. The starting of these private schools was due to the high pressure of demand for secondary education; this was also the beginning of the schools to look out for sources of revenues to run the schools.
Galabawa (2008) identifies the last phase of education as started in 1990s through 2000s, this period has experienced several introduction, statements, policies and commitments including Vision and Mission 2025, civil and institutional financial reforms, education developments programs, Poverty rehabilitation, debt-relief initiatives, all these were applied as a tool for economic and qualitative change especially in education.
It was after the launching of these things above that changed the whole system of finding and rising revenues for the schools. Structural Adjustment program polices which was also started in this phase had more negative impact than the positive ones. These policies included; cost-efficiency, cost sharing and development of non-state schools, the outcome was that; growing inequalities access to education at all levels, growing disparities in the quality of education and change in the direction and vision of education as Galabawa (2008) copied Mbilinyi (1990) p. 25.
1.2 Purpose of the study
The general purpose of this project is to study sources of revenue in private and public schools in Tanzania; also, it aims at making a comparisons and equity implications on education.
1.3 Statement of the study
Finding sources of revenues for educational has never been an easy task; it requires creativity, time and obedience so that funds are available for running the school. There are several reasons for conducting this study but the major ones was to explore what are the major sources of revenues in schools; in government and private ones. This project is the product of many questions concerning revenues of the school; where does it come from, how is it utilized, what are its equity implications on education. Therefore the focus of this study has mainly been on revenues and its equity implications.
To address this problem, the study used the following research tools; Joining Instruction Forms and Interview questions. Joining Instruction forms have been of great assistance in obtaining the data from the visited schools.
The study was conducted in the school context where ten schools were involved (2 Public Primary schools, 1 private primary school, 4 Public secondary schools, and 3 Private secondary schools). This project was conducted expecting that, they are one way of helping others scholars, school managers, school owners, government and other educational stakeholders obtain knowledge on sources of revenues in schools.
1.4 Significance of the study
It is expected that, the findings of this study will benefit a number of people in analyzing the sources of revenue for education in different ways;
Managers of the schools may benefit from it by deducting points on how they can rise revenues for the development of their schools, this will be possible since the paper discusses several ways on how schools obtains revenues for running schools. Such a situation will give an opportunity for both school managers and heads to increase productivity of the school and guaranteed quality of learning.
It is also expected that, school planners, auditors and owners will benefit from this study by understanding where the revenues comes from, and what are other sources of revenues that can full be utilized before the school takes-off.
Variables to be studied in this study are; Sources of revenue as an Independent Variable, Equity as a Dependent Variables.
The great expected significance is that, it will lay down a ground for more research activities to be done in the field of developing sources for revenue in schools.
1.5 Objectives of the study
In studying the sources of revenues for the schools, and its equity implication on education, the study intend to;
(i) To explore how schools rises revenues for their schools, the main focus therefore will be on where are those revenues comes from, these objectives will consider and explore both sources in private and public schools; primary and secondary to make a total of ten visited schools.
(ii) To examine the equity implication of these sources of revenue on education. Here, the paper intends to see if there is any relation between education provision and sources of revenues: accessibility and enrollment.
2. Theoretical background and some indications of literature review
2.1 Sources of Revenues
Many studies on sources of revenues for the schools have been developed; all these studies have provided ideas and concepts of sources of revenues for the schools.
Financing of education has changed a lot soon after the imposition of World Bank and IMF policies such as “Structural Adjustment Programs” where the government was obligated to partially withdraw from financing education, it should be remembered that, at that time, government was the main financier of education in the country. Galabawa (1991) explains that, both primary and secondary education had been removed from the favored position they once held on the agenda of public expenditure. As the result, primary and secondary education suffered from scattered and isolated financial efforts to raise its priority as development needs.
Galabawa (1995) shows that, charges and other annual fund-rising act as stable sources of revenues for the schools. Other sources identified by Galabawa include; parents’ contribution during registrations, and admissions of new pupils, others are from charity walk, raffles, and mixed-music evenings.
Babyegeya(1993) in Galabawa identifies seven sources of finance in the Lake Victoria zone, these sources are; education funds from school founding bodies, school fees, funds from local community development associations, parents contributions, and school economic projects.
Mshana (2008) also explored the sources of revenues in the Catholic schools in Tanzania and came out with several sources as; school fees, contributions from parents which included; academic funds – used to pay funds for the part time teachers, for security purposes, for school uniforms and transport, other sources of revenues identified were; fund-rising, and donors.
Other sources as identified in the ESDP document 2004 include loans and grants from partners and contribution from communities.
Mbelle and Katabaro ( 2003, p.5) discusses also the same sources of revenues in education, the new idea seen in their work is sources of revenues from religious institutions, however, they demand that, these other sources which include contribution from parents are difficult to track and aggregate and therefore can not be relied per se apart from the government source.
Garms, Guthrie and Pierce (1978, p.45) argue that, education has never been free; it requires expenditure of considerable time and resources which could be used to produce other valuable materials used by that particular society, they further suggests the sources of revenues for the schools to be; government subsidies- which would help children from low-income families meet their school costs., government provisions – referring to capitations and other provisions that schools may benefit from the government, and cost sharing – where parents contribute together with the government in running schools.
Other sources include NGOs, CBOs, private firms/individuals, and Community Education fund; these also have played part in rising funds/revenues for the education. (URT,2001)
2.2 Economic Policies of Financing Education
The history of financing education in Tanzania indicates that, financing education efforts was largely influenced by the current policies of that time. There have been several policies formulated to effect financing issues in school. Galabawa (1995)
The education and Training policy of 1995 clearly states that, the financing of education shall be shared between government, communities, parents and end-users. URT (1995)
Galabawa (1995) in Mshana (2008) adds that, there is need to go back to the conventional methods of financing education, because the development of financing education in Tanzania shows that, there is a limit to which central government can depend on fiscal resources to finance education from tax- revenue without destabilizing effects.
The government has initiated the Education Sector Development Programme (ESDP) of 1997 to execute properly the implementation of the education policy calling for effective financing partnership with NGO, private organizations, religious organizations, individuals and communities.
2.3 Educational Implications
There are educational implications on the failure of financing education, these negative implications on education result on poor labor force skills production, stagnation in the production of quality goods, poor services and production processes fail to grow (Carnoy, 1999. P.50)
There are also Positive implications that can be deducted from developing stable revenue sources including high returns from girls’ education in the developing world. (Galabawa, 1993, p. 11)
Also, financing education from government helps in developing grants for construction of new classes and rehabilitation of infrastructure and capitation grant for other school expenses, and for teaching and learning materials; textbooks.
On the other side, there have been different perceptions from individuals concerning the sources and means for collecting resource, Mwita’s story as written in Mtanzania Newspaper (21,Jan. 2010) reveals that, he quitted schooling due to an anonymous list of costs from his school which include; fund for reconstructions of building, hoe, slashing knife, plain papers, academic fund, examination fee, 5,000 Tsh school identifications, 8,000 Tsh for porridge, 8,000Tsh for paying part-time teachers, 5,000Tsh for T-shirts and 6,000Tsh for a sweater.
Another perception was derived from Makwaia wa Kuhenga in his article written in Daily News (21st January,2010) demanding that, the rate of school fees (which in this article is considered among the sources of revenue) is alarming , it is in millions of shillings per annum, at a minimum of 2m per annum.
It is better to be known that, the macroeconomic and public fiscal policy have an immediate and important impact on resources available for education, Motivans (2002) emphasizes that, macroeconomic stability is vital to ensuring stable flows of resources for education.( P.66). such a situation concludes that, there is a great need for the government financing education depending the priority given in the education sector, if public revenues increases there is assurance of more resources in the sector but if, the consequences are vivid such as poor educational performance as reflected in overall low quality and access. (URT, 2001)
3. Hypothesis and Methodology
3.1 Project Hypothesis
The study came up with two hypotheses which was the assumptions the researcher had in mind leading to the finding of the study
There is a significant relationship between sources revenue and equity in education
There is no special criteria guiding the schools in finding sources of revenues for the schools
3.2 Project Methodology
This section presents the methodology and techniques used including the description of the instrument used in exploring the sources of revenues in the schools; primary and secondary, both private and public.
3.3 Target Population
The target population refers to the group from which the researchers intend to gather information related to the research problem.
Thus, the target population for this study comprised of schools; primary and secondary, both private and public.
3.3.1 Sample
Since it was not easy to include everybody in the research as respondents, the researcher had to obtain a sample of which helped in reaching for the findings. Mshana (2008) copies Keya, Makau and Mani (1989) arguing that, financial, physical and social constraints might force the researcher to rely only on the part of the population to obtain information.
3.3.2 Sampling Procedures
This report used purposive sampling which is the type of sampling in which the researcher selects samples based on a certain purpose. Cohen puts it this way that, researcher handpick the cases to be included in the sample on the basis of their judgment of their typicality.( Cohen, Manion & Morrison, p.103)
The sample used is illustrated in the table below.
Table 1. List of schools
No. NAME OF SCHOOL STATUS LOCATION
1. Mbula Primary School Public Lushoto-Tanga
2. Lushoto International School Primary/Private Lushoto- Tanga
3. Kitopeni Primary School Public Lushoto- Tanga
4. Lushoto Secondary School Public Lushoto –Tanga
5. Ubiri Secondary School Public Lushoto –Tanga
6. Lwandai Secondary School Private Lushoto –Tanga
7. Mombo Secondary School Private Korogwe –Tanga
8. Upendo Secondary School Private Lushoto – Tanga
9. Upendo Secondary School Public Lushoto - Tanga
10 Chumbageni Sec. School Public Lushoto - Tanga
Heads of schools, parents and religious leaders were involved in the study to obtain data, however, in some cases; Joining Instructions was also used to obtain information.
3.4 Techniques For Collecting Data
In this study two techniques were used to obtain data, these are interview and documentary review.
3.4.1 Interview
This technique was used to obtain data of this report, interviews were held with heads of school and one religious leader. The interview consisted of open ended questions which were administered to these sources of data. This type of instrument had advantage since it help the researcher gather extra information from the interviewee, it also help on obtaining supplementary information and clarification of concepts which were unclear.
The interviewer faced one critical problem with this instrument in that, two respondents were unwilling of giving information on the sources of their school revenues, when this circumstances arisen alternative means was used to obtain the data, this is documentary review.
3.4.2 Documentary Review
This is another research instrument, which was used in the collection of data of this report. This involved the perusal of important related documentary information on the subject of study. The document reviewed included admission registers, and joining instructions of the visited schools.
Other documents included articles from two news papers, “Daily News and Mtanzania of January 21, 2010. These articles carried crucial information related to the study.
In addition, some information was also obtained from the documents from the Ministry of education, Vocational and Training: the renamed Ministry of Education and Culture.
3.5 Data Analysis
The study is in the qualitative form. According to Beng (1989), all data is qualitative. However, in the long run, quantitative approach was employed in the study. Issues of consent was also regarded in this study where the targeted population was informed earlier before meeting with the researcher, though this prior information was made orally there was a good response. The researcher agreed with the interviewees that, the data was for academic purpose only not to be shared with others.
3.6 Presentation Of Data
This chapter presents the data and discusses the research findings and discussions are presented in two main sections according to two research tasks. Data have been analyzed and presented using tables and descriptions in order to ease analysis and interpretation.
The researcher managed to conduct interviews with 4 heads of whom 2 were from primary schools and the other 2 from secondary schools, 10 teachers were also interviewed, 8 parents were interviewed and 6 parents. This made a total of 18 respondents.
3.7 Profiles of the Visited Schools
3.7.1 Mbula Primary School
It is a public school, after the launching of PEDP the school was divided into two; therefore there is Mbula “A” and “B”. The researcher decided to interview the head from Mbula ‘A” because it was easier to meet her and obtain information for the study. Most of the class has triple streams making a total number of 1200. They perform well in their exams at a district and regional level (no statistics provided)
3.7.2 Kitopeni Primary School
It is a public school, it is populated with pupils, and most of the pupils come from around the Lushoto town. There was good communication between the teacher and the researcher in obtaining data. The researcher was not provided with exact number of students but it was said to be around 1500 and that their performance was satisfactory.
3.7.3 Lushoto International Primary School
It is a private owned school located in the Lushoto- Mombo main road, about 5km from Lushoto town. Currently it runs from nursery to class six only.
3.7.4 Lushoto Secondary School
The school is the product of the SEDP, its first form four class completed 2008, it has high scarcity of teachers where most of them (number was untold) are part time and form six school leavers.
Table 2: Lushoto Secondary School Cost by Parents
3.7.5 Ubiri Secondary School
It is allocated about seven kilometers from Lushoto town; it is a community school with the assistance from SEDP. It has eight streams every stream consisting of 40 – 45 students.
3.7.6 Upendo Secondary School
It is allocated in Mtae about 80km from Lushoto town, it is a private owned school, and the school’s general performance was noted as good.
3.7.7 Lwandai Secondary School
It is a church-owned school, it is allocated at Mlalo about 70Km from Lushoto town, however, the information for this study was obtained from the head office of the church in Lushoto which is the one responsible for the school. Since it is a boarding school, students come from different areas of the country and not from one specific area. It runs from form one to form six, their performance in O-level was reported as “satisfactory” while the A-level was reported to be good.
3.7.8 Shambalai Secondary School
It is in the Lushoto town, it is a co-school and runs from form one to six, form one to four are day scholars while five and six are residing in the built hostels owned by the school. It has triple streams and it was also reported that, about five years past, the school had also streams running to five. Their general performance was reported to be poor.
3.7.9 Chumbageni Secondary School
It is a product of SEDP, it is allocated in one of the villages in Lushoto, and it is now in its third year after the establishment. The enrollment is high due to the influx of the surrounding primary schools.
3.7.10 Mombo Secondary School
It is a private owned-boarding school; it takes varieties of students from different areas of the country. It has about 1500 students, most of the teachers are employed, no part-time teachers reported.
4. FINDINGS –How the data addresses the project Problem to meet the stated objectives
4.1 Sources of Revenues – where do they come from
From the study, it was noted that, almost all ten visited school depended heavily on resources created on their own to rise revenues for the school. Mosha (2000) in Mshana (2008) argued that, the effective funding enhances quality education while inadequate funding may be a source of conflicts in schools due to lack of enough facilities, teachers’ salaries and other necessary conditions to keep education institutions in normal running.
Galabawa considers equity at an education outcome and not increased enrollments and accessibility; hence he insists that, increasing enrollment and access to schooling by increasing numbers does not always guarantee equitable distribution of the tangible effects of schooling. (p.40)
In this study therefore, parents and heads of schooling were requested to list/ mention sources of revenues in the schools. The following findings were obtained from the study.
4.2 School fees
Apart from the assumptions that, many schools depended on school fees as a major source of revenue in the school this study also found out the same thing. Most of the parents interviewed revealed that, the paid fees was used for running school activities, when asked to mention what kind of activities, the following were mentioned; paying for part time teachers ( at secondary school level) books and maintenance of buildings.
Heads of the schools and teachers added that, school fees were also used for inspection costs, buying school items and materials. The amount of school fees in public/community schools was noted to be 40,000 and those in private owned ranged from 360,000 to 500,000 per annual.
4.3 School projects
School projects found and mentioned in the interview included canteen ( Lwandai, Upendo, Ubiri and Mombo secondary), shop, garden, stationery, hall/classroom ( for religious domination which gathers for prayers during weekends) this was noted in Mbulla, Kitopeni and Lushoto primary schools, other projects included; animal keeping ( livestock) and tuition classes – where students and pupils were obligated to pay a little for classes which acted as remedial classes ( Lushoto secondary, Shambalai- though the researcher was informed that these classes were conducted informally, that is it was not officially accepted.
4.4 Government subsidies
It was noted that, other sources of revenue came from government revenues especially in the public government owned schools (Mbula, Lushoto secondary & Primary, Ubiri, Upendo and Chumbageni). These subsidies were paid to them in form of capitations where for primary pupils it was noted to be Tsh.10, 000 per annual; the grant is given in three terms, no information obtained for the secondary students. Other income which was agreed by the heads to be source of revenue was the development grant? No elaborative information was given on this.
4.5 Donors
This source was reported to be used in Lwandai secondary school, where different donors contributed for the school, no exactly amount was given as amount received or to be received from donors but it just depended on how donors felt on contributing.
4.6 Donation/Fundraising
These information differed a lot from one school to other, in Mombo and Lwandai accepted that, fundraising acted as a source of income and this was conducted specifically during the graduation ceremonies, the form of which it was conducted also differed a lot where some used to sell materials, others used the form of putting an item and collect it, so whoever felt to give just stood up and collected.
4.7 Pledging
Other source noted was the system of pledging which was also used mostly during graduation ceremonies; this was conducted in a form of individual participants to stand up and freely pledge to give a certain amount for the school. No limitation either minimum or maximum amount was set. This was reported in all visited schools.
4.8 Enrollment fee
Two parents agreed strongly that, the school used the enrollment fee as a source of revenue for the school, the fee in private schools ranged from 10,000 to 20,000 Tsh. There was another form of fees that was paid when a student is selected; this was noted in the private schools where a parent was supposed to pay cash amounting to 150,000Tsh for assurance of the position. This is the case with Lwandai secondary school.
4.9 Parents’/guardians Contribution
This was highly contributed by parents that, schools have established several contribution to be paid by parents to the school which contributes to the sources of revenue.
The researcher also noted a list of items in the Joining instruction form that a parent was supposed to pay; these items were noted in all schools though they differed in number and how they are addressed. These items are as listed below;
a) Caution money which ranged from 10,000 – 50,000Tsh ( Refundable)
b) Medical fee ranged from 10,000 to 30,000
c) Sports fee 5,000
d) Graduation fee 10,000
e) Generosity 10,000 – 50,000
f) Guards/security 5,000
g) Sweater 5,000 – 8,000
h) ID 5,000
i) Hostel fee ranged from 20,000 – 60,000 per term, meals excluded
4.10 Utilization of These Revenues
The informants mentioned different uses of the revenues; the following discusses those uses as were noted by the researcher;
i) Purchasing text books and teaching materials- all the schools agreed that, those were the usage of the fund, in most of the public-government schools, the capitation grant was effectively used for this case.
ii) For Staff and non-staff salaries though there was no any salary scale obtained from the informants and this was noted in the private school. For the public schools, the fund was partly used for non-staff salaries, example; guards and gardeners’ salaries
iii) Students’ meals were also noted to be purchased using the grant and this was vividly noted in the private schools visited.
iv) Other funds were allocated for medical, sports, graduation, generosity costs.
v) Test and examination stationeries were purchased using the same fund obtained from those sources.
vi) Lwandai and Mombo used the fund for study tours
Other expenses incurred were for motivation purposes and this was also noted in all schools visited though they differed on how they are administered.
• For staff breakfast
• For purchasing prizes for best students and teachers whose teaching subjects performed well in the examinations.
• For paying overtime to teachers who attends remedial classess ( Lwandai, Lushoto, Ubiri, Upendo)
• For staff house allowance- Lwandai and Mombo
• For get together
General Discussion
5. Comparisons and Equity Implication
The study findings showed that, there is a significant effect between sources of revenues and equity implication in education and that, when making a comparison, every school has its own
5.1 Comparison
From the study, it was found out that, the four private owned primary and secondary schools in Lushoto depended heavily on school fees as the major source of revenue and other contributions from parents and donors as minor source which were used to run the school.
The situation was noted different in the public-government school where they depended on government subsidies and grants to run the school, other contribution which came direct from parents was used for school day to day activities (paying for security, health and others)
From the respondents, the researcher noted that, the process of finding sources of revenues in schools have equity implications.
5.2 Educational Implications
The findings showed that, many students ( no exactly number was obtained) failed to attend schooling following the failure to contribute the required contributions, the findings also showed that, parents are willing to contribute for the school but their poor economic status hinders them.
The simple comparison noted showed that, the performance in private schools visited was much better compared to the public owned school (no specific data provided)
5.3 Equity issues
Galabawa (…p.40) discusses the issue of equity that…disparities in the enrollment profile of the country by gender, geographical locality and income group does not certainly influence the choice of priorities and investment patens in education. …this is because merely increasing enrollment and access to schooling by increasing numbers does not guarantee equitable distribution of the tangible effects of schooling.
Therefore, this report also used the three aspects; gender, geographical locality and income group to reach to the findings of this study as follows.
5.3.1 Gender
The respondents agreed that, when it comes to contributing for the schools, parents ( not the interviewed ones) did not respond positively especially when it was a girl student, the respondents added that, many parents believes that, there are no social or economic returns to them when investing on girls education, hence they found no need for contributing.
Also, the respondents added that, in some of the societies especially the livestock keeping societies, a girl child is used as a source of revenue for the family. Hence, increasing more inequity between genders
5.3.2 Geographical Locality
Also, it was found that, many girls failed to attend schooling because; these secondary public schools were located in a distant area, therefore, parents feared of their girls’ security. Some of the students found in this report were coming from Magamba village studying at Ubiri secondary about 14km one way.
It was found out that, students in Lwandai, Upendo, Mombo secondary and Lushoto International primary schools where there are accommodation facilities their school attendance was assured and effective, this meant that, they had more time to spend on schooling different from those in day schools.
In Ubiri and Upendo public owned secondary schools, there are hostels but the accommodation fee was reported to be high considering the parents’ financial status. Some parents therefore, never bothered to pay for the hostels.
Hence, enrollment does not mean equity because, these girls are enrolled but the enrollment process never considered the geographical whereabouts of the students.
5.3.3 Income group
The findings showed that, the parents’ contributions to the school which are in different forms hindered many students and pupils joining school or joining and dropping. The income of parents is low in many rural areas which makes parents fails to pay for the school obligations.
5.4 Conclusions
From the findings, there are several raised issues that were found to be necessary in the educational sector; those issues include the following;
5.4.1 Education as a Public good
Since education is a public good, there is a great need to invest more in education, the researcher see the need for total investment in education, that is, the investment must ensure all facilities are available, starting with classes, materials and teachers.
There is also a need to invest more in Human Capital; this will help in retaining teachers in their professions and that, the education inspectors should also visit the rural areas to ensure the quality of education provided in the schools.
5.4.2 Macro – economic issues
The researcher suggests that, there is a need for education to be financed by the public to ensure availability of resources and depend less from the government subsidies and grants. Galabawa (2005, p.8) warns that, if resources continue to be scarce the burden of providing education will involve considerable strain.
Education can also be financed through the establishment of tax and levies; if this system works out effectively the GDP will increase hence more funds will be allocated to education.
5.4.3 Role of Households
The households’ income determines equity access; therefore, there is the need to create a policy which will favor children from poor families and at the same time, children from well heeled families to cost-share in financing education. Example, children from vulnerable families their progression is low; they have no regular attendance, inappropriate access to post-primary and secondary education which results in a meaningless learning.
5.4.4 Educational Supply and demand
Since there is a great connection between social, cultural, political and institutions in the economic arena, therefore, they also have a great effect in the supply and demand of education from individual level, households, community and the whole system of education. this means that, the supply and demand of education must involve other stakeholders who also have great impact on education supply. This involvement will help a lot in finding, collecting and mobilizing revenues for the schools.
There is the need to increase supply of education materials and facilities to make the demand low and accessible to reduce the scarcity, because the low the demand the higher the demand; hence scarcity.
5.4.5 The role of the State
The state (a modern institution of power) plays a great role in financing education in the country; hence this role needs to be revisited, several sources can be used to obtain the revenues for the education system including; taxation/fiscal policy, borrowing and money creation system.
Currently, Tanzania is financing education using the taxation which reaches schools as grants and subsidies, and borrowing from financial institutions; World Bank, IMF and others. The process has negative impacts as it comes with rigid policies and also has high rate implications.
Before engaging in educational projects such as SEDP and PEDP there are a great need to conduct Cost-benefit analysis to see the cost and the benefit of that specific project.
References
Carnoy, M. (1999). “Globalization And Educational Reform: What Planners Need To Know? Paris: UNESCO.
Cohen, L, Manion, L & Morrison, K. (2001). Research Methods in Education: London: Root Ledge.
Galabawa, J.C.J. (2005). ‘Enhancing Education Quality And Efficiency: Some Observation On Kenya, Tanzania And Uganda. Faculty of Education, University of Dar es Salaam.
Galabawa, J.C.J (1995). “Non-Governmental Secondary Schools In Tanzania: Issues Related To Their Characteristics, Financing, Unit Costs And Student Selection” UTAFITI, (New Series: Journal Of the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, Vol. 2, No. 1&2, University of Dar es Salaam.
Galabawa, J.C.J. (1993). ‘Status And Future Challenges Of The Tanzania Primary And Secondary Education. Economic Research Bureau. UDSM.
Galabawa, J.C.J. (2001). “Paper on Development And Issues Regarding Universal Primary Education (UPE) In Tanzania” ADEA Biennial Meeting
Gamaina, C. Utitiri Wa Michango Umesababisha Niache Shule: Marwa Mwita. Mtanzania News paper. Friday 22nd January, 2010.
Garms I.W, Guthrie, J.W & Pierre, L.C (1978). School Finance: The Economic And Politics Of Public Education. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
Ishengoma,J.M. (2008). “Financing Public Higher Education in Tanzania: Towards a New Model and Implications for Development and Retention of the Next Generation of Academics” Faculty of education, UDSM.
Makwaia wa Kuhenga. (2010) Why Public Schools Need Greater Resources And Attention. Daily News, Friday 22nd January, 2010,P.4
Mbelle, Amon.V.Y (2008). “The Impact Of Reforms On The Quality Of Primary Education In Tanzania”. Dar es Salaam: Mkuki na Nyota, REPOA Research report 08.1
Ministry of Education and Culture, (2004), Financial Document, Education sector development program- Secondary Education Development Program. Ministry of Education and Culture: Dar es Salaam.
Mshana, Rachel (2008), Partnership Financing in Roman Catholic Secondary Schools in Tanzania. MEMA Dissertation. Faculty of Education, University of Dar es Salaam.
Mshana, Elli
M.A. Education
February 2010
Monday, February 22, 2010
Sources of Revenue in Secondary Schools: A fate for Our Education
Dedication
To Michelle Holmes, who has always been by my side, encouraging me to move forward even when things were strange and the fate was high, she never lived me alone. Michelle, you are open and sincere, I love that, you courage my courage, is what has brought me to where I am and who I am. Real, Success lies on the hands of those believing in the Beauty of their Dreams.
But, How Privacy is Privacy? Thank you
1. Introduction
Education has been the back-borne for development in any country, being it formal or informal. Tanzania took over the responsibility of financing her schools soon after the declaration of the Tanganyika independence 1961. Before that, the responsibility was rested on the shoulders of the colony and religious institutions.
Investing in human capital and mobilization of resources plays a great role in the development processes. It is important to invest in education; but the question remains intact, whose responsibility is this? Should this be taken by the government or by the community?
This means that, there is a great need to produce education services regardless of how long and how much is going to cost; we need to invest many resources in education production process. Galabawa (2001, p.1) identified major resources for production of education service as being labor, land and capital.
1.1 Background
Schools in Tanzania has passed several periods regarding means of rising revenues for the school, most of the public schools were funded by government where in 1970’s there was abolition of fees for the primary education, such a situation increased high community mobilization on education, the outcome of abolishment of fees was the increased participation, efficiency and increased education spending.
Private schools as discussed by Galabawa (1995, p.69) are either schools resulted from community support, trust or whole community. The effective existence of these schools therefore was after the liberalization policy of 1980s -1990s. This has contributed to the declining participation, access and low internal efficiency of education. The starting of these private schools was due to the high pressure of demand for secondary education; this was also the beginning of the schools to look out for sources of revenues to run the schools.
Galabawa (2008) identifies the last phase of education as started in 1990s through 2000s, this period has experienced several introduction, statements, policies and commitments including Vision and Mission 2025, civil and institutional financial reforms, education developments programs, Poverty rehabilitation, debt-relief initiatives, all these were applied as a tool for economic and qualitative change especially in education.
It was after the launching of these things above that changed the whole system of finding and rising revenues for the schools. Structural Adjustment program polices which was also started in this phase had more negative impact than the positive ones. These policies included; cost-efficiency, cost sharing and development of non-state schools, the outcome was that; growing inequalities access to education at all levels, growing disparities in the quality of education and change in the direction and vision of education as Galabawa (2008) copied Mbilinyi (1990) p. 25.
1.2 Purpose of the study
The general purpose of this project is to study sources of revenue in private and public schools in Tanzania; also, it aims at making a comparisons and equity implications on education.
1.3 Statement of the study
Finding sources of revenues for educational has never been an easy task; it requires creativity, time and obedience so that funds are available for running the school. There are several reasons for conducting this study but the major ones was to explore what are the major sources of revenues in schools; in government and private ones. This project is the product of many questions concerning revenues of the school; where does it come from, how is it utilized, what are its equity implications on education. Therefore the focus of this study has mainly been on revenues and its equity implications.
To address this problem, the study used the following research tools; Joining Instruction Forms and Interview questions. Joining Instruction forms have been of great assistance in obtaining the data from the visited schools.
The study was conducted in the school context where ten schools were involved (2 Public Primary schools, 1 private primary school, 4 Public secondary schools, and 3 Private secondary schools). This project was conducted expecting that, they are one way of helping others scholars, school managers, school owners, government and other educational stakeholders obtain knowledge on sources of revenues in schools.
1.4 Significance of the study
It is expected that, the findings of this study will benefit a number of people in analyzing the sources of revenue for education in different ways;
Managers of the schools may benefit from it by deducting points on how they can rise revenues for the development of their schools, this will be possible since the paper discusses several ways on how schools obtains revenues for running schools. Such a situation will give an opportunity for both school managers and heads to increase productivity of the school and guaranteed quality of learning.
It is also expected that, school planners, auditors and owners will benefit from this study by understanding where the revenues comes from, and what are other sources of revenues that can full be utilized before the school takes-off.
Variables to be studied in this study are; Sources of revenue as an Independent Variable, Equity as a Dependent Variables.
The great expected significance is that, it will lay down a ground for more research activities to be done in the field of developing sources for revenue in schools.
1.5 Objectives of the study
In studying the sources of revenues for the schools, and its equity implication on education, the study intend to;
(i) To explore how schools rises revenues for their schools, the main focus therefore will be on where are those revenues comes from, these objectives will consider and explore both sources in private and public schools; primary and secondary to make a total of ten visited schools.
(ii) To examine the equity implication of these sources of revenue on education. Here, the paper intends to see if there is any relation between education provision and sources of revenues: accessibility and enrollment.
2. Theoretical background and some indications of literature review
2.1 Sources of Revenues
Many studies on sources of revenues for the schools have been developed; all these studies have provided ideas and concepts of sources of revenues for the schools.
Financing of education has changed a lot soon after the imposition of World Bank and IMF policies such as “Structural Adjustment Programs” where the government was obligated to partially withdraw from financing education, it should be remembered that, at that time, government was the main financier of education in the country. Galabawa (1991) explains that, both primary and secondary education had been removed from the favored position they once held on the agenda of public expenditure. As the result, primary and secondary education suffered from scattered and isolated financial efforts to raise its priority as development needs.
Galabawa (1995) shows that, charges and other annual fund-rising act as stable sources of revenues for the schools. Other sources identified by Galabawa include; parents’ contribution during registrations, and admissions of new pupils, others are from charity walk, raffles, and mixed-music evenings.
Babyegeya(1993) in Galabawa identifies seven sources of finance in the Lake Victoria zone, these sources are; education funds from school founding bodies, school fees, funds from local community development associations, parents contributions, and school economic projects.
Mshana (2008) also explored the sources of revenues in the Catholic schools in Tanzania and came out with several sources as; school fees, contributions from parents which included; academic funds – used to pay funds for the part time teachers, for security purposes, for school uniforms and transport, other sources of revenues identified were; fund-rising, and donors.
Other sources as identified in the ESDP document 2004 include loans and grants from partners and contribution from communities.
Mbelle and Katabaro ( 2003, p.5) discusses also the same sources of revenues in education, the new idea seen in their work is sources of revenues from religious institutions, however, they demand that, these other sources which include contribution from parents are difficult to track and aggregate and therefore can not be relied per se apart from the government source.
Garms, Guthrie and Pierce (1978, p.45) argue that, education has never been free; it requires expenditure of considerable time and resources which could be used to produce other valuable materials used by that particular society, they further suggests the sources of revenues for the schools to be; government subsidies- which would help children from low-income families meet their school costs., government provisions – referring to capitations and other provisions that schools may benefit from the government, and cost sharing – where parents contribute together with the government in running schools.
Other sources include NGOs, CBOs, private firms/individuals, and Community Education fund; these also have played part in rising funds/revenues for the education. (URT,2001)
2.2 Economic Policies of Financing Education
The history of financing education in Tanzania indicates that, financing education efforts was largely influenced by the current policies of that time. There have been several policies formulated to effect financing issues in school. Galabawa (1995)
The education and Training policy of 1995 clearly states that, the financing of education shall be shared between government, communities, parents and end-users. URT (1995)
Galabawa (1995) in Mshana (2008) adds that, there is need to go back to the conventional methods of financing education, because the development of financing education in Tanzania shows that, there is a limit to which central government can depend on fiscal resources to finance education from tax- revenue without destabilizing effects.
The government has initiated the Education Sector Development Programme (ESDP) of 1997 to execute properly the implementation of the education policy calling for effective financing partnership with NGO, private organizations, religious organizations, individuals and communities.
2.3 Educational Implications
There are educational implications on the failure of financing education, these negative implications on education result on poor labor force skills production, stagnation in the production of quality goods, poor services and production processes fail to grow (Carnoy, 1999. P.50)
There are also Positive implications that can be deducted from developing stable revenue sources including high returns from girls’ education in the developing world. (Galabawa, 1993, p. 11)
Also, financing education from government helps in developing grants for construction of new classes and rehabilitation of infrastructure and capitation grant for other school expenses, and for teaching and learning materials; textbooks.
On the other side, there have been different perceptions from individuals concerning the sources and means for collecting resource, Mwita’s story as written in Mtanzania Newspaper (21,Jan. 2010) reveals that, he quitted schooling due to an anonymous list of costs from his school which include; fund for reconstructions of building, hoe, slashing knife, plain papers, academic fund, examination fee, 5,000 Tsh school identifications, 8,000 Tsh for porridge, 8,000Tsh for paying part-time teachers, 5,000Tsh for T-shirts and 6,000Tsh for a sweater.
Another perception was derived from Makwaia wa Kuhenga in his article written in Daily News (21st January,2010) demanding that, the rate of school fees (which in this article is considered among the sources of revenue) is alarming , it is in millions of shillings per annum, at a minimum of 2m per annum.
It is better to be known that, the macroeconomic and public fiscal policy have an immediate and important impact on resources available for education, Motivans (2002) emphasizes that, macroeconomic stability is vital to ensuring stable flows of resources for education.( P.66). such a situation concludes that, there is a great need for the government financing education depending the priority given in the education sector, if public revenues increases there is assurance of more resources in the sector but if, the consequences are vivid such as poor educational performance as reflected in overall low quality and access. (URT, 2001)
3. Hypothesis and Methodology
3.1 Project Hypothesis
The study came up with two hypotheses which was the assumptions the researcher had in mind leading to the finding of the study
There is a significant relationship between sources revenue and equity in education
There is no special criteria guiding the schools in finding sources of revenues for the schools
3.2 Project Methodology
This section presents the methodology and techniques used including the description of the instrument used in exploring the sources of revenues in the schools; primary and secondary, both private and public.
3.3 Target Population
The target population refers to the group from which the researchers intend to gather information related to the research problem.
Thus, the target population for this study comprised of schools; primary and secondary, both private and public.
3.3.1 Sample
Since it was not easy to include everybody in the research as respondents, the researcher had to obtain a sample of which helped in reaching for the findings. Mshana (2008) copies Keya, Makau and Mani (1989) arguing that, financial, physical and social constraints might force the researcher to rely only on the part of the population to obtain information.
3.3.2 Sampling Procedures
This report used purposive sampling which is the type of sampling in which the researcher selects samples based on a certain purpose. Cohen puts it this way that, researcher handpick the cases to be included in the sample on the basis of their judgment of their typicality.( Cohen, Manion & Morrison, p.103)
The sample used is illustrated in the table below.
Table 1. List of schools
No. NAME OF SCHOOL STATUS LOCATION
1. Mbula Primary School Public Lushoto-Tanga
2. Lushoto International School Primary/Private Lushoto- Tanga
3. Kitopeni Primary School Public Lushoto- Tanga
4. Lushoto Secondary School Public Lushoto –Tanga
5. Ubiri Secondary School Public Lushoto –Tanga
6. Lwandai Secondary School Private Lushoto –Tanga
7. Mombo Secondary School Private Korogwe –Tanga
8. Upendo Secondary School Private Lushoto – Tanga
9. Upendo Secondary School Public Lushoto - Tanga
10 Chumbageni Sec. School Public Lushoto - Tanga
Heads of schools, parents and religious leaders were involved in the study to obtain data, however, in some cases; Joining Instructions was also used to obtain information.
3.4 Techniques For Collecting Data
In this study two techniques were used to obtain data, these are interview and documentary review.
3.4.1 Interview
This technique was used to obtain data of this report, interviews were held with heads of school and one religious leader. The interview consisted of open ended questions which were administered to these sources of data. This type of instrument had advantage since it help the researcher gather extra information from the interviewee, it also help on obtaining supplementary information and clarification of concepts which were unclear.
The interviewer faced one critical problem with this instrument in that, two respondents were unwilling of giving information on the sources of their school revenues, when this circumstances arisen alternative means was used to obtain the data, this is documentary review.
3.4.2 Documentary Review
This is another research instrument, which was used in the collection of data of this report. This involved the perusal of important related documentary information on the subject of study. The document reviewed included admission registers, and joining instructions of the visited schools.
Other documents included articles from two news papers, “Daily News and Mtanzania of January 21, 2010. These articles carried crucial information related to the study.
In addition, some information was also obtained from the documents from the Ministry of education, Vocational and Training: the renamed Ministry of Education and Culture.
3.5 Data Analysis
The study is in the qualitative form. According to Beng (1989), all data is qualitative. However, in the long run, quantitative approach was employed in the study. Issues of consent was also regarded in this study where the targeted population was informed earlier before meeting with the researcher, though this prior information was made orally there was a good response. The researcher agreed with the interviewees that, the data was for academic purpose only not to be shared with others.
3.6 Presentation Of Data
This chapter presents the data and discusses the research findings and discussions are presented in two main sections according to two research tasks. Data have been analyzed and presented using tables and descriptions in order to ease analysis and interpretation.
The researcher managed to conduct interviews with 4 heads of whom 2 were from primary schools and the other 2 from secondary schools, 10 teachers were also interviewed, 8 parents were interviewed and 6 parents. This made a total of 18 respondents.
3.7 Profiles of the Visited Schools
3.7.1 Mbula Primary School
It is a public school, after the launching of PEDP the school was divided into two; therefore there is Mbula “A” and “B”. The researcher decided to interview the head from Mbula ‘A” because it was easier to meet her and obtain information for the study. Most of the class has triple streams making a total number of 1200. They perform well in their exams at a district and regional level (no statistics provided)
3.7.2 Kitopeni Primary School
It is a public school, it is populated with pupils, and most of the pupils come from around the Lushoto town. There was good communication between the teacher and the researcher in obtaining data. The researcher was not provided with exact number of students but it was said to be around 1500 and that their performance was satisfactory.
3.7.3 Lushoto International Primary School
It is a private owned school located in the Lushoto- Mombo main road, about 5km from Lushoto town. Currently it runs from nursery to class six only.
3.7.4 Lushoto Secondary School
The school is the product of the SEDP, its first form four class completed 2008, it has high scarcity of teachers where most of them (number was untold) are part time and form six school leavers.
Table 2: Lushoto Secondary School Cost by Parents
3.7.5 Ubiri Secondary School
It is allocated about seven kilometers from Lushoto town; it is a community school with the assistance from SEDP. It has eight streams every stream consisting of 40 – 45 students.
3.7.6 Upendo Secondary School
It is allocated in Mtae about 80km from Lushoto town, it is a private owned school, and the school’s general performance was noted as good.
3.7.7 Lwandai Secondary School
It is a church-owned school, it is allocated at Mlalo about 70Km from Lushoto town, however, the information for this study was obtained from the head office of the church in Lushoto which is the one responsible for the school. Since it is a boarding school, students come from different areas of the country and not from one specific area. It runs from form one to form six, their performance in O-level was reported as “satisfactory” while the A-level was reported to be good.
3.7.8 Shambalai Secondary School
It is in the Lushoto town, it is a co-school and runs from form one to six, form one to four are day scholars while five and six are residing in the built hostels owned by the school. It has triple streams and it was also reported that, about five years past, the school had also streams running to five. Their general performance was reported to be poor.
3.7.9 Chumbageni Secondary School
It is a product of SEDP, it is allocated in one of the villages in Lushoto, and it is now in its third year after the establishment. The enrollment is high due to the influx of the surrounding primary schools.
3.7.10 Mombo Secondary School
It is a private owned-boarding school; it takes varieties of students from different areas of the country. It has about 1500 students, most of the teachers are employed, no part-time teachers reported.
4. FINDINGS –How the data addresses the project Problem to meet the stated objectives
4.1 Sources of Revenues – where do they come from
From the study, it was noted that, almost all ten visited school depended heavily on resources created on their own to rise revenues for the school. Mosha (2000) in Mshana (2008) argued that, the effective funding enhances quality education while inadequate funding may be a source of conflicts in schools due to lack of enough facilities, teachers’ salaries and other necessary conditions to keep education institutions in normal running.
Galabawa considers equity at an education outcome and not increased enrollments and accessibility; hence he insists that, increasing enrollment and access to schooling by increasing numbers does not always guarantee equitable distribution of the tangible effects of schooling. (p.40)
In this study therefore, parents and heads of schooling were requested to list/ mention sources of revenues in the schools. The following findings were obtained from the study.
4.2 School fees
Apart from the assumptions that, many schools depended on school fees as a major source of revenue in the school this study also found out the same thing. Most of the parents interviewed revealed that, the paid fees was used for running school activities, when asked to mention what kind of activities, the following were mentioned; paying for part time teachers ( at secondary school level) books and maintenance of buildings.
Heads of the schools and teachers added that, school fees were also used for inspection costs, buying school items and materials. The amount of school fees in public/community schools was noted to be 40,000 and those in private owned ranged from 360,000 to 500,000 per annual.
4.3 School projects
School projects found and mentioned in the interview included canteen ( Lwandai, Upendo, Ubiri and Mombo secondary), shop, garden, stationery, hall/classroom ( for religious domination which gathers for prayers during weekends) this was noted in Mbulla, Kitopeni and Lushoto primary schools, other projects included; animal keeping ( livestock) and tuition classes – where students and pupils were obligated to pay a little for classes which acted as remedial classes ( Lushoto secondary, Shambalai- though the researcher was informed that these classes were conducted informally, that is it was not officially accepted.
4.4 Government subsidies
It was noted that, other sources of revenue came from government revenues especially in the public government owned schools (Mbula, Lushoto secondary & Primary, Ubiri, Upendo and Chumbageni). These subsidies were paid to them in form of capitations where for primary pupils it was noted to be Tsh.10, 000 per annual; the grant is given in three terms, no information obtained for the secondary students. Other income which was agreed by the heads to be source of revenue was the development grant? No elaborative information was given on this.
4.5 Donors
This source was reported to be used in Lwandai secondary school, where different donors contributed for the school, no exactly amount was given as amount received or to be received from donors but it just depended on how donors felt on contributing.
4.6 Donation/Fundraising
These information differed a lot from one school to other, in Mombo and Lwandai accepted that, fundraising acted as a source of income and this was conducted specifically during the graduation ceremonies, the form of which it was conducted also differed a lot where some used to sell materials, others used the form of putting an item and collect it, so whoever felt to give just stood up and collected.
4.7 Pledging
Other source noted was the system of pledging which was also used mostly during graduation ceremonies; this was conducted in a form of individual participants to stand up and freely pledge to give a certain amount for the school. No limitation either minimum or maximum amount was set. This was reported in all visited schools.
4.8 Enrollment fee
Two parents agreed strongly that, the school used the enrollment fee as a source of revenue for the school, the fee in private schools ranged from 10,000 to 20,000 Tsh. There was another form of fees that was paid when a student is selected; this was noted in the private schools where a parent was supposed to pay cash amounting to 150,000Tsh for assurance of the position. This is the case with Lwandai secondary school.
4.9 Parents’/guardians Contribution
This was highly contributed by parents that, schools have established several contribution to be paid by parents to the school which contributes to the sources of revenue.
The researcher also noted a list of items in the Joining instruction form that a parent was supposed to pay; these items were noted in all schools though they differed in number and how they are addressed. These items are as listed below;
a) Caution money which ranged from 10,000 – 50,000Tsh ( Refundable)
b) Medical fee ranged from 10,000 to 30,000
c) Sports fee 5,000
d) Graduation fee 10,000
e) Generosity 10,000 – 50,000
f) Guards/security 5,000
g) Sweater 5,000 – 8,000
h) ID 5,000
i) Hostel fee ranged from 20,000 – 60,000 per term, meals excluded
4.10 Utilization of These Revenues
The informants mentioned different uses of the revenues; the following discusses those uses as were noted by the researcher;
i) Purchasing text books and teaching materials- all the schools agreed that, those were the usage of the fund, in most of the public-government schools, the capitation grant was effectively used for this case.
ii) For Staff and non-staff salaries though there was no any salary scale obtained from the informants and this was noted in the private school. For the public schools, the fund was partly used for non-staff salaries, example; guards and gardeners’ salaries
iii) Students’ meals were also noted to be purchased using the grant and this was vividly noted in the private schools visited.
iv) Other funds were allocated for medical, sports, graduation, generosity costs.
v) Test and examination stationeries were purchased using the same fund obtained from those sources.
vi) Lwandai and Mombo used the fund for study tours
Other expenses incurred were for motivation purposes and this was also noted in all schools visited though they differed on how they are administered.
• For staff breakfast
• For purchasing prizes for best students and teachers whose teaching subjects performed well in the examinations.
• For paying overtime to teachers who attends remedial classess ( Lwandai, Lushoto, Ubiri, Upendo)
• For staff house allowance- Lwandai and Mombo
• For get together
General Discussion
5. Comparisons and Equity Implication
The study findings showed that, there is a significant effect between sources of revenues and equity implication in education and that, when making a comparison, every school has its own
5.1 Comparison
From the study, it was found out that, the four private owned primary and secondary schools in Lushoto depended heavily on school fees as the major source of revenue and other contributions from parents and donors as minor source which were used to run the school.
The situation was noted different in the public-government school where they depended on government subsidies and grants to run the school, other contribution which came direct from parents was used for school day to day activities (paying for security, health and others)
From the respondents, the researcher noted that, the process of finding sources of revenues in schools have equity implications.
5.2 Educational Implications
The findings showed that, many students ( no exactly number was obtained) failed to attend schooling following the failure to contribute the required contributions, the findings also showed that, parents are willing to contribute for the school but their poor economic status hinders them.
The simple comparison noted showed that, the performance in private schools visited was much better compared to the public owned school (no specific data provided)
5.3 Equity issues
Galabawa (…p.40) discusses the issue of equity that…disparities in the enrollment profile of the country by gender, geographical locality and income group does not certainly influence the choice of priorities and investment patens in education. …this is because merely increasing enrollment and access to schooling by increasing numbers does not guarantee equitable distribution of the tangible effects of schooling.
Therefore, this report also used the three aspects; gender, geographical locality and income group to reach to the findings of this study as follows.
5.3.1 Gender
The respondents agreed that, when it comes to contributing for the schools, parents ( not the interviewed ones) did not respond positively especially when it was a girl student, the respondents added that, many parents believes that, there are no social or economic returns to them when investing on girls education, hence they found no need for contributing.
Also, the respondents added that, in some of the societies especially the livestock keeping societies, a girl child is used as a source of revenue for the family. Hence, increasing more inequity between genders
5.3.2 Geographical Locality
Also, it was found that, many girls failed to attend schooling because; these secondary public schools were located in a distant area, therefore, parents feared of their girls’ security. Some of the students found in this report were coming from Magamba village studying at Ubiri secondary about 14km one way.
It was found out that, students in Lwandai, Upendo, Mombo secondary and Lushoto International primary schools where there are accommodation facilities their school attendance was assured and effective, this meant that, they had more time to spend on schooling different from those in day schools.
In Ubiri and Upendo public owned secondary schools, there are hostels but the accommodation fee was reported to be high considering the parents’ financial status. Some parents therefore, never bothered to pay for the hostels.
Hence, enrollment does not mean equity because, these girls are enrolled but the enrollment process never considered the geographical whereabouts of the students.
5.3.3 Income group
The findings showed that, the parents’ contributions to the school which are in different forms hindered many students and pupils joining school or joining and dropping. The income of parents is low in many rural areas which makes parents fails to pay for the school obligations.
5.4 Conclusions
From the findings, there are several raised issues that were found to be necessary in the educational sector; those issues include the following;
5.4.1 Education as a Public good
Since education is a public good, there is a great need to invest more in education, the researcher see the need for total investment in education, that is, the investment must ensure all facilities are available, starting with classes, materials and teachers.
There is also a need to invest more in Human Capital; this will help in retaining teachers in their professions and that, the education inspectors should also visit the rural areas to ensure the quality of education provided in the schools.
5.4.2 Macro – economic issues
The researcher suggests that, there is a need for education to be financed by the public to ensure availability of resources and depend less from the government subsidies and grants. Galabawa (2005, p.8) warns that, if resources continue to be scarce the burden of providing education will involve considerable strain.
Education can also be financed through the establishment of tax and levies; if this system works out effectively the GDP will increase hence more funds will be allocated to education.
5.4.3 Role of Households
The households’ income determines equity access; therefore, there is the need to create a policy which will favor children from poor families and at the same time, children from well heeled families to cost-share in financing education. Example, children from vulnerable families their progression is low; they have no regular attendance, inappropriate access to post-primary and secondary education which results in a meaningless learning.
5.4.4 Educational Supply and demand
Since there is a great connection between social, cultural, political and institutions in the economic arena, therefore, they also have a great effect in the supply and demand of education from individual level, households, community and the whole system of education. this means that, the supply and demand of education must involve other stakeholders who also have great impact on education supply. This involvement will help a lot in finding, collecting and mobilizing revenues for the schools.
There is the need to increase supply of education materials and facilities to make the demand low and accessible to reduce the scarcity, because the low the demand the higher the demand; hence scarcity.
5.4.5 The role of the State
The state (a modern institution of power) plays a great role in financing education in the country; hence this role needs to be revisited, several sources can be used to obtain the revenues for the education system including; taxation/fiscal policy, borrowing and money creation system.
Currently, Tanzania is financing education using the taxation which reaches schools as grants and subsidies, and borrowing from financial institutions; World Bank, IMF and others. The process has negative impacts as it comes with rigid policies and also has high rate implications.
Before engaging in educational projects such as SEDP and PEDP there are a great need to conduct Cost-benefit analysis to see the cost and the benefit of that specific project.
References
Carnoy, M. (1999). “Globalization And Educational Reform: What Planners Need To Know? Paris: UNESCO.
Cohen, L, Manion, L & Morrison, K. (2001). Research Methods in Education: London: Root Ledge.
Galabawa, J.C.J. (2005). ‘Enhancing Education Quality And Efficiency: Some Observation On Kenya, Tanzania And Uganda. Faculty of Education, University of Dar es Salaam.
Galabawa, J.C.J (1995). “Non-Governmental Secondary Schools In Tanzania: Issues Related To Their Characteristics, Financing, Unit Costs And Student Selection” UTAFITI, (New Series: Journal Of the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, Vol. 2, No. 1&2, University of Dar es Salaam.
Galabawa, J.C.J. (1993). ‘Status And Future Challenges Of The Tanzania Primary And Secondary Education. Economic Research Bureau. UDSM.
Galabawa, J.C.J. (2001). “Paper on Development And Issues Regarding Universal Primary Education (UPE) In Tanzania” ADEA Biennial Meeting
Gamaina, C. Utitiri Wa Michango Umesababisha Niache Shule: Marwa Mwita. Mtanzania News paper. Friday 22nd January, 2010.
Garms I.W, Guthrie, J.W & Pierre, L.C (1978). School Finance: The Economic And Politics Of Public Education. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
Ishengoma,J.M. (2008). “Financing Public Higher Education in Tanzania: Towards a New Model and Implications for Development and Retention of the Next Generation of Academics” Faculty of education, UDSM.
Makwaia wa Kuhenga. (2010) Why Public Schools Need Greater Resources And Attention. Daily News, Friday 22nd January, 2010,P.4
Mbelle, Amon.V.Y (2008). “The Impact Of Reforms On The Quality Of Primary Education In Tanzania”. Dar es Salaam: Mkuki na Nyota, REPOA Research report 08.1
Ministry of Education and Culture, (2004), Financial Document, Education sector development program- Secondary Education Development Program. Ministry of Education and Culture: Dar es Salaam.
Mshana, Rachel (2008), Partnership Financing in Roman Catholic Secondary Schools in Tanzania. MEMA Dissertation. Faculty of Education, University of Dar es Salaam.
Mshana, Elli
M.A. Education
February 2010
To Michelle Holmes, who has always been by my side, encouraging me to move forward even when things were strange and the fate was high, she never lived me alone. Michelle, you are open and sincere, I love that, you courage my courage, is what has brought me to where I am and who I am. Real, Success lies on the hands of those believing in the Beauty of their Dreams.
But, How Privacy is Privacy? Thank you
1. Introduction
Education has been the back-borne for development in any country, being it formal or informal. Tanzania took over the responsibility of financing her schools soon after the declaration of the Tanganyika independence 1961. Before that, the responsibility was rested on the shoulders of the colony and religious institutions.
Investing in human capital and mobilization of resources plays a great role in the development processes. It is important to invest in education; but the question remains intact, whose responsibility is this? Should this be taken by the government or by the community?
This means that, there is a great need to produce education services regardless of how long and how much is going to cost; we need to invest many resources in education production process. Galabawa (2001, p.1) identified major resources for production of education service as being labor, land and capital.
1.1 Background
Schools in Tanzania has passed several periods regarding means of rising revenues for the school, most of the public schools were funded by government where in 1970’s there was abolition of fees for the primary education, such a situation increased high community mobilization on education, the outcome of abolishment of fees was the increased participation, efficiency and increased education spending.
Private schools as discussed by Galabawa (1995, p.69) are either schools resulted from community support, trust or whole community. The effective existence of these schools therefore was after the liberalization policy of 1980s -1990s. This has contributed to the declining participation, access and low internal efficiency of education. The starting of these private schools was due to the high pressure of demand for secondary education; this was also the beginning of the schools to look out for sources of revenues to run the schools.
Galabawa (2008) identifies the last phase of education as started in 1990s through 2000s, this period has experienced several introduction, statements, policies and commitments including Vision and Mission 2025, civil and institutional financial reforms, education developments programs, Poverty rehabilitation, debt-relief initiatives, all these were applied as a tool for economic and qualitative change especially in education.
It was after the launching of these things above that changed the whole system of finding and rising revenues for the schools. Structural Adjustment program polices which was also started in this phase had more negative impact than the positive ones. These policies included; cost-efficiency, cost sharing and development of non-state schools, the outcome was that; growing inequalities access to education at all levels, growing disparities in the quality of education and change in the direction and vision of education as Galabawa (2008) copied Mbilinyi (1990) p. 25.
1.2 Purpose of the study
The general purpose of this project is to study sources of revenue in private and public schools in Tanzania; also, it aims at making a comparisons and equity implications on education.
1.3 Statement of the study
Finding sources of revenues for educational has never been an easy task; it requires creativity, time and obedience so that funds are available for running the school. There are several reasons for conducting this study but the major ones was to explore what are the major sources of revenues in schools; in government and private ones. This project is the product of many questions concerning revenues of the school; where does it come from, how is it utilized, what are its equity implications on education. Therefore the focus of this study has mainly been on revenues and its equity implications.
To address this problem, the study used the following research tools; Joining Instruction Forms and Interview questions. Joining Instruction forms have been of great assistance in obtaining the data from the visited schools.
The study was conducted in the school context where ten schools were involved (2 Public Primary schools, 1 private primary school, 4 Public secondary schools, and 3 Private secondary schools). This project was conducted expecting that, they are one way of helping others scholars, school managers, school owners, government and other educational stakeholders obtain knowledge on sources of revenues in schools.
1.4 Significance of the study
It is expected that, the findings of this study will benefit a number of people in analyzing the sources of revenue for education in different ways;
Managers of the schools may benefit from it by deducting points on how they can rise revenues for the development of their schools, this will be possible since the paper discusses several ways on how schools obtains revenues for running schools. Such a situation will give an opportunity for both school managers and heads to increase productivity of the school and guaranteed quality of learning.
It is also expected that, school planners, auditors and owners will benefit from this study by understanding where the revenues comes from, and what are other sources of revenues that can full be utilized before the school takes-off.
Variables to be studied in this study are; Sources of revenue as an Independent Variable, Equity as a Dependent Variables.
The great expected significance is that, it will lay down a ground for more research activities to be done in the field of developing sources for revenue in schools.
1.5 Objectives of the study
In studying the sources of revenues for the schools, and its equity implication on education, the study intend to;
(i) To explore how schools rises revenues for their schools, the main focus therefore will be on where are those revenues comes from, these objectives will consider and explore both sources in private and public schools; primary and secondary to make a total of ten visited schools.
(ii) To examine the equity implication of these sources of revenue on education. Here, the paper intends to see if there is any relation between education provision and sources of revenues: accessibility and enrollment.
2. Theoretical background and some indications of literature review
2.1 Sources of Revenues
Many studies on sources of revenues for the schools have been developed; all these studies have provided ideas and concepts of sources of revenues for the schools.
Financing of education has changed a lot soon after the imposition of World Bank and IMF policies such as “Structural Adjustment Programs” where the government was obligated to partially withdraw from financing education, it should be remembered that, at that time, government was the main financier of education in the country. Galabawa (1991) explains that, both primary and secondary education had been removed from the favored position they once held on the agenda of public expenditure. As the result, primary and secondary education suffered from scattered and isolated financial efforts to raise its priority as development needs.
Galabawa (1995) shows that, charges and other annual fund-rising act as stable sources of revenues for the schools. Other sources identified by Galabawa include; parents’ contribution during registrations, and admissions of new pupils, others are from charity walk, raffles, and mixed-music evenings.
Babyegeya(1993) in Galabawa identifies seven sources of finance in the Lake Victoria zone, these sources are; education funds from school founding bodies, school fees, funds from local community development associations, parents contributions, and school economic projects.
Mshana (2008) also explored the sources of revenues in the Catholic schools in Tanzania and came out with several sources as; school fees, contributions from parents which included; academic funds – used to pay funds for the part time teachers, for security purposes, for school uniforms and transport, other sources of revenues identified were; fund-rising, and donors.
Other sources as identified in the ESDP document 2004 include loans and grants from partners and contribution from communities.
Mbelle and Katabaro ( 2003, p.5) discusses also the same sources of revenues in education, the new idea seen in their work is sources of revenues from religious institutions, however, they demand that, these other sources which include contribution from parents are difficult to track and aggregate and therefore can not be relied per se apart from the government source.
Garms, Guthrie and Pierce (1978, p.45) argue that, education has never been free; it requires expenditure of considerable time and resources which could be used to produce other valuable materials used by that particular society, they further suggests the sources of revenues for the schools to be; government subsidies- which would help children from low-income families meet their school costs., government provisions – referring to capitations and other provisions that schools may benefit from the government, and cost sharing – where parents contribute together with the government in running schools.
Other sources include NGOs, CBOs, private firms/individuals, and Community Education fund; these also have played part in rising funds/revenues for the education. (URT,2001)
2.2 Economic Policies of Financing Education
The history of financing education in Tanzania indicates that, financing education efforts was largely influenced by the current policies of that time. There have been several policies formulated to effect financing issues in school. Galabawa (1995)
The education and Training policy of 1995 clearly states that, the financing of education shall be shared between government, communities, parents and end-users. URT (1995)
Galabawa (1995) in Mshana (2008) adds that, there is need to go back to the conventional methods of financing education, because the development of financing education in Tanzania shows that, there is a limit to which central government can depend on fiscal resources to finance education from tax- revenue without destabilizing effects.
The government has initiated the Education Sector Development Programme (ESDP) of 1997 to execute properly the implementation of the education policy calling for effective financing partnership with NGO, private organizations, religious organizations, individuals and communities.
2.3 Educational Implications
There are educational implications on the failure of financing education, these negative implications on education result on poor labor force skills production, stagnation in the production of quality goods, poor services and production processes fail to grow (Carnoy, 1999. P.50)
There are also Positive implications that can be deducted from developing stable revenue sources including high returns from girls’ education in the developing world. (Galabawa, 1993, p. 11)
Also, financing education from government helps in developing grants for construction of new classes and rehabilitation of infrastructure and capitation grant for other school expenses, and for teaching and learning materials; textbooks.
On the other side, there have been different perceptions from individuals concerning the sources and means for collecting resource, Mwita’s story as written in Mtanzania Newspaper (21,Jan. 2010) reveals that, he quitted schooling due to an anonymous list of costs from his school which include; fund for reconstructions of building, hoe, slashing knife, plain papers, academic fund, examination fee, 5,000 Tsh school identifications, 8,000 Tsh for porridge, 8,000Tsh for paying part-time teachers, 5,000Tsh for T-shirts and 6,000Tsh for a sweater.
Another perception was derived from Makwaia wa Kuhenga in his article written in Daily News (21st January,2010) demanding that, the rate of school fees (which in this article is considered among the sources of revenue) is alarming , it is in millions of shillings per annum, at a minimum of 2m per annum.
It is better to be known that, the macroeconomic and public fiscal policy have an immediate and important impact on resources available for education, Motivans (2002) emphasizes that, macroeconomic stability is vital to ensuring stable flows of resources for education.( P.66). such a situation concludes that, there is a great need for the government financing education depending the priority given in the education sector, if public revenues increases there is assurance of more resources in the sector but if, the consequences are vivid such as poor educational performance as reflected in overall low quality and access. (URT, 2001)
3. Hypothesis and Methodology
3.1 Project Hypothesis
The study came up with two hypotheses which was the assumptions the researcher had in mind leading to the finding of the study
There is a significant relationship between sources revenue and equity in education
There is no special criteria guiding the schools in finding sources of revenues for the schools
3.2 Project Methodology
This section presents the methodology and techniques used including the description of the instrument used in exploring the sources of revenues in the schools; primary and secondary, both private and public.
3.3 Target Population
The target population refers to the group from which the researchers intend to gather information related to the research problem.
Thus, the target population for this study comprised of schools; primary and secondary, both private and public.
3.3.1 Sample
Since it was not easy to include everybody in the research as respondents, the researcher had to obtain a sample of which helped in reaching for the findings. Mshana (2008) copies Keya, Makau and Mani (1989) arguing that, financial, physical and social constraints might force the researcher to rely only on the part of the population to obtain information.
3.3.2 Sampling Procedures
This report used purposive sampling which is the type of sampling in which the researcher selects samples based on a certain purpose. Cohen puts it this way that, researcher handpick the cases to be included in the sample on the basis of their judgment of their typicality.( Cohen, Manion & Morrison, p.103)
The sample used is illustrated in the table below.
Table 1. List of schools
No. NAME OF SCHOOL STATUS LOCATION
1. Mbula Primary School Public Lushoto-Tanga
2. Lushoto International School Primary/Private Lushoto- Tanga
3. Kitopeni Primary School Public Lushoto- Tanga
4. Lushoto Secondary School Public Lushoto –Tanga
5. Ubiri Secondary School Public Lushoto –Tanga
6. Lwandai Secondary School Private Lushoto –Tanga
7. Mombo Secondary School Private Korogwe –Tanga
8. Upendo Secondary School Private Lushoto – Tanga
9. Upendo Secondary School Public Lushoto - Tanga
10 Chumbageni Sec. School Public Lushoto - Tanga
Heads of schools, parents and religious leaders were involved in the study to obtain data, however, in some cases; Joining Instructions was also used to obtain information.
3.4 Techniques For Collecting Data
In this study two techniques were used to obtain data, these are interview and documentary review.
3.4.1 Interview
This technique was used to obtain data of this report, interviews were held with heads of school and one religious leader. The interview consisted of open ended questions which were administered to these sources of data. This type of instrument had advantage since it help the researcher gather extra information from the interviewee, it also help on obtaining supplementary information and clarification of concepts which were unclear.
The interviewer faced one critical problem with this instrument in that, two respondents were unwilling of giving information on the sources of their school revenues, when this circumstances arisen alternative means was used to obtain the data, this is documentary review.
3.4.2 Documentary Review
This is another research instrument, which was used in the collection of data of this report. This involved the perusal of important related documentary information on the subject of study. The document reviewed included admission registers, and joining instructions of the visited schools.
Other documents included articles from two news papers, “Daily News and Mtanzania of January 21, 2010. These articles carried crucial information related to the study.
In addition, some information was also obtained from the documents from the Ministry of education, Vocational and Training: the renamed Ministry of Education and Culture.
3.5 Data Analysis
The study is in the qualitative form. According to Beng (1989), all data is qualitative. However, in the long run, quantitative approach was employed in the study. Issues of consent was also regarded in this study where the targeted population was informed earlier before meeting with the researcher, though this prior information was made orally there was a good response. The researcher agreed with the interviewees that, the data was for academic purpose only not to be shared with others.
3.6 Presentation Of Data
This chapter presents the data and discusses the research findings and discussions are presented in two main sections according to two research tasks. Data have been analyzed and presented using tables and descriptions in order to ease analysis and interpretation.
The researcher managed to conduct interviews with 4 heads of whom 2 were from primary schools and the other 2 from secondary schools, 10 teachers were also interviewed, 8 parents were interviewed and 6 parents. This made a total of 18 respondents.
3.7 Profiles of the Visited Schools
3.7.1 Mbula Primary School
It is a public school, after the launching of PEDP the school was divided into two; therefore there is Mbula “A” and “B”. The researcher decided to interview the head from Mbula ‘A” because it was easier to meet her and obtain information for the study. Most of the class has triple streams making a total number of 1200. They perform well in their exams at a district and regional level (no statistics provided)
3.7.2 Kitopeni Primary School
It is a public school, it is populated with pupils, and most of the pupils come from around the Lushoto town. There was good communication between the teacher and the researcher in obtaining data. The researcher was not provided with exact number of students but it was said to be around 1500 and that their performance was satisfactory.
3.7.3 Lushoto International Primary School
It is a private owned school located in the Lushoto- Mombo main road, about 5km from Lushoto town. Currently it runs from nursery to class six only.
3.7.4 Lushoto Secondary School
The school is the product of the SEDP, its first form four class completed 2008, it has high scarcity of teachers where most of them (number was untold) are part time and form six school leavers.
Table 2: Lushoto Secondary School Cost by Parents
3.7.5 Ubiri Secondary School
It is allocated about seven kilometers from Lushoto town; it is a community school with the assistance from SEDP. It has eight streams every stream consisting of 40 – 45 students.
3.7.6 Upendo Secondary School
It is allocated in Mtae about 80km from Lushoto town, it is a private owned school, and the school’s general performance was noted as good.
3.7.7 Lwandai Secondary School
It is a church-owned school, it is allocated at Mlalo about 70Km from Lushoto town, however, the information for this study was obtained from the head office of the church in Lushoto which is the one responsible for the school. Since it is a boarding school, students come from different areas of the country and not from one specific area. It runs from form one to form six, their performance in O-level was reported as “satisfactory” while the A-level was reported to be good.
3.7.8 Shambalai Secondary School
It is in the Lushoto town, it is a co-school and runs from form one to six, form one to four are day scholars while five and six are residing in the built hostels owned by the school. It has triple streams and it was also reported that, about five years past, the school had also streams running to five. Their general performance was reported to be poor.
3.7.9 Chumbageni Secondary School
It is a product of SEDP, it is allocated in one of the villages in Lushoto, and it is now in its third year after the establishment. The enrollment is high due to the influx of the surrounding primary schools.
3.7.10 Mombo Secondary School
It is a private owned-boarding school; it takes varieties of students from different areas of the country. It has about 1500 students, most of the teachers are employed, no part-time teachers reported.
4. FINDINGS –How the data addresses the project Problem to meet the stated objectives
4.1 Sources of Revenues – where do they come from
From the study, it was noted that, almost all ten visited school depended heavily on resources created on their own to rise revenues for the school. Mosha (2000) in Mshana (2008) argued that, the effective funding enhances quality education while inadequate funding may be a source of conflicts in schools due to lack of enough facilities, teachers’ salaries and other necessary conditions to keep education institutions in normal running.
Galabawa considers equity at an education outcome and not increased enrollments and accessibility; hence he insists that, increasing enrollment and access to schooling by increasing numbers does not always guarantee equitable distribution of the tangible effects of schooling. (p.40)
In this study therefore, parents and heads of schooling were requested to list/ mention sources of revenues in the schools. The following findings were obtained from the study.
4.2 School fees
Apart from the assumptions that, many schools depended on school fees as a major source of revenue in the school this study also found out the same thing. Most of the parents interviewed revealed that, the paid fees was used for running school activities, when asked to mention what kind of activities, the following were mentioned; paying for part time teachers ( at secondary school level) books and maintenance of buildings.
Heads of the schools and teachers added that, school fees were also used for inspection costs, buying school items and materials. The amount of school fees in public/community schools was noted to be 40,000 and those in private owned ranged from 360,000 to 500,000 per annual.
4.3 School projects
School projects found and mentioned in the interview included canteen ( Lwandai, Upendo, Ubiri and Mombo secondary), shop, garden, stationery, hall/classroom ( for religious domination which gathers for prayers during weekends) this was noted in Mbulla, Kitopeni and Lushoto primary schools, other projects included; animal keeping ( livestock) and tuition classes – where students and pupils were obligated to pay a little for classes which acted as remedial classes ( Lushoto secondary, Shambalai- though the researcher was informed that these classes were conducted informally, that is it was not officially accepted.
4.4 Government subsidies
It was noted that, other sources of revenue came from government revenues especially in the public government owned schools (Mbula, Lushoto secondary & Primary, Ubiri, Upendo and Chumbageni). These subsidies were paid to them in form of capitations where for primary pupils it was noted to be Tsh.10, 000 per annual; the grant is given in three terms, no information obtained for the secondary students. Other income which was agreed by the heads to be source of revenue was the development grant? No elaborative information was given on this.
4.5 Donors
This source was reported to be used in Lwandai secondary school, where different donors contributed for the school, no exactly amount was given as amount received or to be received from donors but it just depended on how donors felt on contributing.
4.6 Donation/Fundraising
These information differed a lot from one school to other, in Mombo and Lwandai accepted that, fundraising acted as a source of income and this was conducted specifically during the graduation ceremonies, the form of which it was conducted also differed a lot where some used to sell materials, others used the form of putting an item and collect it, so whoever felt to give just stood up and collected.
4.7 Pledging
Other source noted was the system of pledging which was also used mostly during graduation ceremonies; this was conducted in a form of individual participants to stand up and freely pledge to give a certain amount for the school. No limitation either minimum or maximum amount was set. This was reported in all visited schools.
4.8 Enrollment fee
Two parents agreed strongly that, the school used the enrollment fee as a source of revenue for the school, the fee in private schools ranged from 10,000 to 20,000 Tsh. There was another form of fees that was paid when a student is selected; this was noted in the private schools where a parent was supposed to pay cash amounting to 150,000Tsh for assurance of the position. This is the case with Lwandai secondary school.
4.9 Parents’/guardians Contribution
This was highly contributed by parents that, schools have established several contribution to be paid by parents to the school which contributes to the sources of revenue.
The researcher also noted a list of items in the Joining instruction form that a parent was supposed to pay; these items were noted in all schools though they differed in number and how they are addressed. These items are as listed below;
a) Caution money which ranged from 10,000 – 50,000Tsh ( Refundable)
b) Medical fee ranged from 10,000 to 30,000
c) Sports fee 5,000
d) Graduation fee 10,000
e) Generosity 10,000 – 50,000
f) Guards/security 5,000
g) Sweater 5,000 – 8,000
h) ID 5,000
i) Hostel fee ranged from 20,000 – 60,000 per term, meals excluded
4.10 Utilization of These Revenues
The informants mentioned different uses of the revenues; the following discusses those uses as were noted by the researcher;
i) Purchasing text books and teaching materials- all the schools agreed that, those were the usage of the fund, in most of the public-government schools, the capitation grant was effectively used for this case.
ii) For Staff and non-staff salaries though there was no any salary scale obtained from the informants and this was noted in the private school. For the public schools, the fund was partly used for non-staff salaries, example; guards and gardeners’ salaries
iii) Students’ meals were also noted to be purchased using the grant and this was vividly noted in the private schools visited.
iv) Other funds were allocated for medical, sports, graduation, generosity costs.
v) Test and examination stationeries were purchased using the same fund obtained from those sources.
vi) Lwandai and Mombo used the fund for study tours
Other expenses incurred were for motivation purposes and this was also noted in all schools visited though they differed on how they are administered.
• For staff breakfast
• For purchasing prizes for best students and teachers whose teaching subjects performed well in the examinations.
• For paying overtime to teachers who attends remedial classess ( Lwandai, Lushoto, Ubiri, Upendo)
• For staff house allowance- Lwandai and Mombo
• For get together
General Discussion
5. Comparisons and Equity Implication
The study findings showed that, there is a significant effect between sources of revenues and equity implication in education and that, when making a comparison, every school has its own
5.1 Comparison
From the study, it was found out that, the four private owned primary and secondary schools in Lushoto depended heavily on school fees as the major source of revenue and other contributions from parents and donors as minor source which were used to run the school.
The situation was noted different in the public-government school where they depended on government subsidies and grants to run the school, other contribution which came direct from parents was used for school day to day activities (paying for security, health and others)
From the respondents, the researcher noted that, the process of finding sources of revenues in schools have equity implications.
5.2 Educational Implications
The findings showed that, many students ( no exactly number was obtained) failed to attend schooling following the failure to contribute the required contributions, the findings also showed that, parents are willing to contribute for the school but their poor economic status hinders them.
The simple comparison noted showed that, the performance in private schools visited was much better compared to the public owned school (no specific data provided)
5.3 Equity issues
Galabawa (…p.40) discusses the issue of equity that…disparities in the enrollment profile of the country by gender, geographical locality and income group does not certainly influence the choice of priorities and investment patens in education. …this is because merely increasing enrollment and access to schooling by increasing numbers does not guarantee equitable distribution of the tangible effects of schooling.
Therefore, this report also used the three aspects; gender, geographical locality and income group to reach to the findings of this study as follows.
5.3.1 Gender
The respondents agreed that, when it comes to contributing for the schools, parents ( not the interviewed ones) did not respond positively especially when it was a girl student, the respondents added that, many parents believes that, there are no social or economic returns to them when investing on girls education, hence they found no need for contributing.
Also, the respondents added that, in some of the societies especially the livestock keeping societies, a girl child is used as a source of revenue for the family. Hence, increasing more inequity between genders
5.3.2 Geographical Locality
Also, it was found that, many girls failed to attend schooling because; these secondary public schools were located in a distant area, therefore, parents feared of their girls’ security. Some of the students found in this report were coming from Magamba village studying at Ubiri secondary about 14km one way.
It was found out that, students in Lwandai, Upendo, Mombo secondary and Lushoto International primary schools where there are accommodation facilities their school attendance was assured and effective, this meant that, they had more time to spend on schooling different from those in day schools.
In Ubiri and Upendo public owned secondary schools, there are hostels but the accommodation fee was reported to be high considering the parents’ financial status. Some parents therefore, never bothered to pay for the hostels.
Hence, enrollment does not mean equity because, these girls are enrolled but the enrollment process never considered the geographical whereabouts of the students.
5.3.3 Income group
The findings showed that, the parents’ contributions to the school which are in different forms hindered many students and pupils joining school or joining and dropping. The income of parents is low in many rural areas which makes parents fails to pay for the school obligations.
5.4 Conclusions
From the findings, there are several raised issues that were found to be necessary in the educational sector; those issues include the following;
5.4.1 Education as a Public good
Since education is a public good, there is a great need to invest more in education, the researcher see the need for total investment in education, that is, the investment must ensure all facilities are available, starting with classes, materials and teachers.
There is also a need to invest more in Human Capital; this will help in retaining teachers in their professions and that, the education inspectors should also visit the rural areas to ensure the quality of education provided in the schools.
5.4.2 Macro – economic issues
The researcher suggests that, there is a need for education to be financed by the public to ensure availability of resources and depend less from the government subsidies and grants. Galabawa (2005, p.8) warns that, if resources continue to be scarce the burden of providing education will involve considerable strain.
Education can also be financed through the establishment of tax and levies; if this system works out effectively the GDP will increase hence more funds will be allocated to education.
5.4.3 Role of Households
The households’ income determines equity access; therefore, there is the need to create a policy which will favor children from poor families and at the same time, children from well heeled families to cost-share in financing education. Example, children from vulnerable families their progression is low; they have no regular attendance, inappropriate access to post-primary and secondary education which results in a meaningless learning.
5.4.4 Educational Supply and demand
Since there is a great connection between social, cultural, political and institutions in the economic arena, therefore, they also have a great effect in the supply and demand of education from individual level, households, community and the whole system of education. this means that, the supply and demand of education must involve other stakeholders who also have great impact on education supply. This involvement will help a lot in finding, collecting and mobilizing revenues for the schools.
There is the need to increase supply of education materials and facilities to make the demand low and accessible to reduce the scarcity, because the low the demand the higher the demand; hence scarcity.
5.4.5 The role of the State
The state (a modern institution of power) plays a great role in financing education in the country; hence this role needs to be revisited, several sources can be used to obtain the revenues for the education system including; taxation/fiscal policy, borrowing and money creation system.
Currently, Tanzania is financing education using the taxation which reaches schools as grants and subsidies, and borrowing from financial institutions; World Bank, IMF and others. The process has negative impacts as it comes with rigid policies and also has high rate implications.
Before engaging in educational projects such as SEDP and PEDP there are a great need to conduct Cost-benefit analysis to see the cost and the benefit of that specific project.
References
Carnoy, M. (1999). “Globalization And Educational Reform: What Planners Need To Know? Paris: UNESCO.
Cohen, L, Manion, L & Morrison, K. (2001). Research Methods in Education: London: Root Ledge.
Galabawa, J.C.J. (2005). ‘Enhancing Education Quality And Efficiency: Some Observation On Kenya, Tanzania And Uganda. Faculty of Education, University of Dar es Salaam.
Galabawa, J.C.J (1995). “Non-Governmental Secondary Schools In Tanzania: Issues Related To Their Characteristics, Financing, Unit Costs And Student Selection” UTAFITI, (New Series: Journal Of the Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, Vol. 2, No. 1&2, University of Dar es Salaam.
Galabawa, J.C.J. (1993). ‘Status And Future Challenges Of The Tanzania Primary And Secondary Education. Economic Research Bureau. UDSM.
Galabawa, J.C.J. (2001). “Paper on Development And Issues Regarding Universal Primary Education (UPE) In Tanzania” ADEA Biennial Meeting
Gamaina, C. Utitiri Wa Michango Umesababisha Niache Shule: Marwa Mwita. Mtanzania News paper. Friday 22nd January, 2010.
Garms I.W, Guthrie, J.W & Pierre, L.C (1978). School Finance: The Economic And Politics Of Public Education. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall.
Ishengoma,J.M. (2008). “Financing Public Higher Education in Tanzania: Towards a New Model and Implications for Development and Retention of the Next Generation of Academics” Faculty of education, UDSM.
Makwaia wa Kuhenga. (2010) Why Public Schools Need Greater Resources And Attention. Daily News, Friday 22nd January, 2010,P.4
Mbelle, Amon.V.Y (2008). “The Impact Of Reforms On The Quality Of Primary Education In Tanzania”. Dar es Salaam: Mkuki na Nyota, REPOA Research report 08.1
Ministry of Education and Culture, (2004), Financial Document, Education sector development program- Secondary Education Development Program. Ministry of Education and Culture: Dar es Salaam.
Mshana, Rachel (2008), Partnership Financing in Roman Catholic Secondary Schools in Tanzania. MEMA Dissertation. Faculty of Education, University of Dar es Salaam.
Mshana, Elli
M.A. Education
February 2010
Funding Higher Education in Tanzania: A Mobilizing or a Dividing tool for Tanzanians?
Abstract
This was my class assignment among the many I have done, I have decided to Dedicate most of my Assignments to Michelle, there are several reason for dedicating them to Her, but let it be enough to say; Michelle, You among the best friends of mine I never met before and thank you for being so...
This paper aims at exploring how the funding of higher education in Tanzania. This paper gives a historical background on how higher education has been funded in the past years and explores the major means for current funding.
The second section of this paper discusses the major ways of funding higher education that are currently in use which include; Loans and grants from government and higher education students’ loans board, private sources- individual contributions (cost-sharing), sponsors/donors, revenues and tax collection, education levy, contracted research and consultancy.
The other section takes a glance at the policies for funding higher education which are practiced and what are the consequences that Tanzania may face in the near future using such means of funding and policies.
It discusses on how the funding process has resulted in dividing Tanzanians; those from well-off families against those from low income families. The findings from this paper shows that, financing of higher education is still a challenge that the state needs to face for the benefit of the coming generation. The paper concludes by summing up the major means of funding and its impact on the fate of many Tanzanians.
Introduction
Funding for higher education in Tanzania has brought chaos and misunderstandings between the students, government, institutions and in fact with the studying schedule too. This is caused by the lack of clear higher education funding policy in the country. It was until 1992 after the creation of the new ministry of Science, Technology and Higher Education (MSTHE) that the need for the policy to fund higher education became necessary. (MSTHE, 1999)
The Tanzania government has been experiencing problems in funding higher education apart from the cost-sharing policy, it is either way that, the policy is toothless or else there is poor supervision in the implementation of the policy which as the result has led to “free loans and grants” disbursed to both; those qualifying for the loan and the other group which do not qualify.
Other problems include the influx of new enrollment in the higher education against un-coordinated system of including them. There is also a major problem of including the private universities in the system of loans from the government; such situation has also contributed to the high enrollment number of higher education students to be served by Loan board. (MSTHE, 1999)
Such a situation has caused majority of poor individuals to miss access to higher education since they can not afford paying even for the quarter of the costs.
Ishengoma (2008, p.2) puts it this way… The Tanzania government-despite of the existence of cost sharing in higher education policy for the past 15 years and its limited financial ability to finance public higher education because of many competing needs- still shoulders the burden of financing both public and private higher education through disbursing interest free loans and grants through the Higher Education Students’ Loans Board (HESLB) and the Tanzania Education Authority (TEA). The current system of financing public higher education is in dire need of being revisited to avoid further looming crises in the higher education sector.
The current means for financing higher education in the country which works under the cost-sharing policy include these; Loans and grants from government through higher education students’ loans board, private sources- individual contributions (cost-sharing), sponsors/donors, revenues and tax collection, education levy, contracted research and consultancy.
Therefore, this paper explores a variety of financing systems of higher education the country, its availability and accessibility, who benefit and what to be done.
Loans from government through higher education students’ loans board
This is a way of financing higher education by the government. It is an effective way of funding higher education which can be accessed by majority and increase equity in education from the low income families to the high income families. The effectiveness will depend however on the effectiveness on “means testing” and reduced misconduct by the board personnel. The tool however, has now proved failure to high misconduct of the board personnel, poor means testing, lack of proper and true information for the applicants and low follow-ups on the set criteria.
Private sources and individual contributions (cost-sharing)
It includes the self financed students and those financed by government by percents, it is also another effective way which if used properly could increase students accessibility to higher education but very unfortunately, this has been denied and therefore, everyone need to be included in the grants and loan scheme. Such claims were difficult to find out any written document to support this argument.
Sponsors/Donors
In the year 2004-2005 after the effective take-off of the loan board, all students were supposed to be under the board, no matter who was being financed by who, it was at this point when the role of the Sponsors and donors lost its meaning. This decision was never taken with care, the number of students to be sponsored under the board was also overlooked, the outcome was that, in one moment, the boards found laden with more students that it could handle. Sponsors and donors in this sense refers included, religious foundations and organization, community based organizations and individuals who were sponsoring students at different level.
Donors and sponsors (those who were helping individuals) withdrew from financing higher education at the level of individuals and their role was turned to finance direct to the government.
Revenues and Tax collection plus Education levy
This means of financing higher education could have been a solution to the current problem only if the government could have played its role in the collection of revenues and tax and proper allocation of the fund in the higher education.
There is very low effort by the government to collect loan paybacks from the graduates who were under government sponsorship although the higher education funding policy states vividly that, the graduate shall be given grace period of one year before starting paying the loan which will last for ten to fifteen years, if the cash could have been collected from those graduates it could have helped the higher education finance more students, hence increasing accessibility to higher education. Ishengoma (1998) clarifies that the while domestic revenue has increased by 55% from 2000/01-2005/06, and during the same period Government finance registered consistent deficits between revenue and expenditure implying the Government’s inability to adequately finance critical sectors including higher education and also inability to control its expenditure.
Current policies for funding higher education
There have been several policies formulated since the creation of the Ministry of Science, Technology and Higher Education in 1990s, other policies and utterances from political leaders have also been given out, the major aim was to improve the process of financing higher education. Sources of financing higher education include these; contribution by the owners (infrastructures, buildings and other resources), contribution by beneficiaries, the government ( as main financier provide loans and scholarships), private sector ( encouraged to invest on education), individual and families and finally contribution by higher education institutions.
The 1999 policy as narrated in the number 2.2.5 articulates that; the big imbalance in students’ enrollment between the sciences and humanities shall be addresses. Currently, the policy was used as a determinant of who should get the loan for the on going academic year 2009-10.
The policy as narrated in 2.2.6 states that, deliberate action shall be taken towards increased financing of higher education in general and of higher education institutions in particular in order to facilitate pursuit of the missions of which they each are established. Increased funding towards the critical minimum of 1 to 1.5 percent of GNP shall be the goal. This policy has done nothing to its claims as Ishengoma ( 2008 p.6) narrates that, while domestic revenue increased by 55% from 2000/01-2005/06, during the same period Government finance registered consistent deficits between revenue and expenditure implying the Government’s inability to adequately finance critical sectors including higher education and also inability to control its expenditure. In such situation therefore, it is difficult to expect a miracle to happen in our higher education financing systems.
Another policy is found in 3.2.1 of the MSTHE document of 1999 demanding that, curricular emphasis on higher education shall be placed on programs that are geared towards responding to the changing world of sciences and technology and the corresponding ever –changing needs of the people… as agriculture will continue to be the back-borne of the economy, agricultural related disciplines and technologies shall be given priority. My doubt is, what is the meaning of having good policies with poor teaching technology and manpower? The execution of this policy may remain in the writings than in practical.
3.2.3 Policy states that, the education sector shall be given priority in allocation of resources by the government. Training and research objectives shall target the development and promotion of a strong indigenous base of science and technology to enable Tanzanians solves their development problems.
If Tanzania truly wants to produce strong indigenous base of science and technology, some of the policies needs or should be removed and that, there must be one source of information to avoid current “conflict of interest”. For example, while the Loan board claims that, there is no enough fund to fund all students, the head of the state stands out and declare that, no one student shall miss the university or chased out because of lacking loan.
Also the 5.2.5 policy states clearly that, the student relationship shall be that of the sponsor-sponsoree based on contract terms. The terms shall be clear to all parts. Take a simple loan form used for the academic year 2009/10, the instruction were not clearly stated, it was based on one side, the form dictated the Sponsoree( Student) to fill it quickly and agree to everything written in there, failure to do so or disagreeing meant that, you did not want to get the loan.
Since there are more than 15 policies, this paper can not go through all these but where necessary a policy can be copied as a reference.
How the Process of financing higher education divide the community
i) Equity
These policies do not allow elasticity- that is do not consider other cross-cutting issues that individual may face, example, the claim that, all science students shall be given priority in disbursement of loan and admission in the higher education does not consider students who come from villages where there have never been a laboratory and science materials are rare, therefore, it is vivid that, majority can not enjoy the loans from the loan board.
ii) Accessibility of Loans
Majority of Tanzanian students comes from rural areas where there is limited access to information, the loan board demands students to either download Loan forms from the website or collect them from the post offices, two, the particulars needed to qualify for the loan include certificates of birth, residents, property ownership which these parents do not have, therefore, failure to attach the required information result in missing the loan and miss the access to higher education. Dachi (2000, p.148) copies Woodhall (1989a, 1989b and 1989c:78) that
… no hard evidence to support the argument that, loans deter low income students, ethnic minorities and other marginalized groups from participation in higher education, the system of mandatory grants is restrictive and it is still the upper income families who are most likely to benefit from higher education despite the system of means tested grants.
iii) Quality of Education provided
Though the policies insist on producing our own scientist to cater our own problems there is great doubt about because, most of the studying time is spent on demonstrating for access to loans and good learning facilities.
Two, the increased number of students is inversely proportion to the available facilities starting with accommodation, lecture room, seminar rooms, libraries and the teaching staff. For example, the University of Dar es Salaam has established two learning centers; Center for Continuing Education (CCE) and UDSMAVU Learning Center in 2001 has changed nothing to the lecturer’s pedagogical skills.
Galabawa (2005, p.84) show how technology can be integrated in higher education without segregating others as he says; the first step out of this trap would be to increase enrolment in higher education level in such a manner that, overtime, Tanzania can move into the category of “dynamic leaders” group: with the requisite human-capacity potential to trigger-off technological achievements through new ideas, research and knowledge.
iv) The concept of scarcity
Tanzania can not ignore the truth that, the supply of resources in our production is so limited and therefore, there are extra power needs to be employed to include both students from low income families too. We need scientist, teachers and engineers who will take us to somewhere else, therefore, the following must be included in financing higher education as Galabawa outlines them; (i) the end product (
graduated students) must be allocated among competing uses, assuming that behavior is rational, (ii) resources used in education provision have alternative uses,; thus it is possible to use the same kinds of resources to make different kinds of goods for Tanzanians with the education system itself and outside the education system.
The question comes in, should the state make the higher education scarce so that we may have quality education or allow the influx into higher education and miss the quality? Need more research especially on the rate of return to education, if the higher education has high rate of return both; private and public return regardless of quality let it be, but if not, the state therefore need to rephrase the policies and conduct of financing higher education.
v) Who benefit: Private and Public Returns
When it comes to the question of who benefit from the process of financing higher education, one can conclude that, it is the upper class because the loans scheme especially from the government as the main financier of education is being implanted without taking into consideration other issues like; the level of income of the families, as Dachi( 2000) copies Omari (1994) that…the loans schemes in Tanzania is implemented without taking into consideration family income levels, thus failing to institute a different criterion for disbursing loans between relatively, those who are considered as high income students and low income students.
Private Returns
Private returns refer to those benefits that an individual have after completing education (higher education in this context). There are several returns including;
a) Earnings- the increase of productivity goes direct with the increasing in earnings.
b) Quality Employment- with higher education, one is not going to seek for any job but a quality one, one therefore becomes more productive for himself but also for the community. Currently, more jobs are available for increased job-specific human capital among those with higher levels of education
c) Social status – human being likes being appreciated, that they exist, so when it comes to higher education individual would like to acquire it so as to increase their social status in their working society.
Public Returns
This refers to those benefit of an individual through which the public benefit from, these benefits include the following;
a) Economic growth- education has effect on the growth of the economy of any country in that education increases human capital. More highly educated individuals mean more analysts, and inventors, and scientists working to increase more human capital through the development ideas and technologies and proper implementations of those ideas. Hence more and quality goods are produced for the growth of a stable economy.
b) Development of good citizenry- this benefit need to be understood with a close eye, it is believed that, the society with more educated elites the chances of misconducts is lowered, therefore, these people will understand the importance of voting, cleanness and other society related issues.
The findings
Several findings have been identified from the discussion above; the current financing system do not have a specific criteria of deciding who deserves what, as the result, even the students from well-off families have been included the loan board, two, there is a need of having a guaranteed system of repaying back of loans, scholarships should also be aimed to those in need whose ability to afford the cost of education is almost zero.
Other findings are that, the political statements should be filtered from policy implementation because if this is allowed, the system will always be twisted by those political utterances and statements.
It is also noted that, the connection between education and opportunity has oriented the discourse around those who are most in need of enhanced opportunities. Low income, minority, and disabled students are often the targeted group in this context, and the same general focus has been applied to low-wealth or low-income taxpayers. (Berne& Stiefel…)
What to be done
The financing system in Tanzania has brought the education sector at dilemma, the state is struggling to move forward but there are pitfalls in the financing system that needs to be addressed.
There are several options that the state can deploy to enhance the current financing system, the following may be assistance per the finding; one, finance higher education out of taxation on a small scale, two, the government inter into contact with banks to provide educational loans to students just the same as “Mabilioni ya Kikwete” which was the loans taken from the bank, or else, create a special bank for generating, disbursing and collecting student loans. three, rely on private finance for students who comes from well-off families and, perhaps, a small number on scholarships for Low income, minority, and disabled students an or low-wealth or low-income taxpayers. (Dachi, 2000, Barr, 2004)
Other models of financing higher education in the country include these ones;
a) Potential Graduate Employers
This includes direct donations to the higher institutions from these graduate employers, students and professorial chairs sponsorship.
b) Alumni
These are graduate students who did their studies in that particular institutions, if well organized they can be usefully utilized to generate income for the institutions.
Concluding Observation
Having explored the policies for financing higher education, it is strongly recommended to have up-to-date policies which will have clear distinctions criteria of who deserves what and drop the current system of relying on paper information.
The government may opt for a system of tracing back the financial capabilities of parents therefore when it comes to means-testing it will be easier to come out with true deserving names.
Mshana, Elli
M.A Education Student
UNiversity of Dar es salaam- Tanzania
This was my class assignment among the many I have done, I have decided to Dedicate most of my Assignments to Michelle, there are several reason for dedicating them to Her, but let it be enough to say; Michelle, You among the best friends of mine I never met before and thank you for being so...
This paper aims at exploring how the funding of higher education in Tanzania. This paper gives a historical background on how higher education has been funded in the past years and explores the major means for current funding.
The second section of this paper discusses the major ways of funding higher education that are currently in use which include; Loans and grants from government and higher education students’ loans board, private sources- individual contributions (cost-sharing), sponsors/donors, revenues and tax collection, education levy, contracted research and consultancy.
The other section takes a glance at the policies for funding higher education which are practiced and what are the consequences that Tanzania may face in the near future using such means of funding and policies.
It discusses on how the funding process has resulted in dividing Tanzanians; those from well-off families against those from low income families. The findings from this paper shows that, financing of higher education is still a challenge that the state needs to face for the benefit of the coming generation. The paper concludes by summing up the major means of funding and its impact on the fate of many Tanzanians.
Introduction
Funding for higher education in Tanzania has brought chaos and misunderstandings between the students, government, institutions and in fact with the studying schedule too. This is caused by the lack of clear higher education funding policy in the country. It was until 1992 after the creation of the new ministry of Science, Technology and Higher Education (MSTHE) that the need for the policy to fund higher education became necessary. (MSTHE, 1999)
The Tanzania government has been experiencing problems in funding higher education apart from the cost-sharing policy, it is either way that, the policy is toothless or else there is poor supervision in the implementation of the policy which as the result has led to “free loans and grants” disbursed to both; those qualifying for the loan and the other group which do not qualify.
Other problems include the influx of new enrollment in the higher education against un-coordinated system of including them. There is also a major problem of including the private universities in the system of loans from the government; such situation has also contributed to the high enrollment number of higher education students to be served by Loan board. (MSTHE, 1999)
Such a situation has caused majority of poor individuals to miss access to higher education since they can not afford paying even for the quarter of the costs.
Ishengoma (2008, p.2) puts it this way… The Tanzania government-despite of the existence of cost sharing in higher education policy for the past 15 years and its limited financial ability to finance public higher education because of many competing needs- still shoulders the burden of financing both public and private higher education through disbursing interest free loans and grants through the Higher Education Students’ Loans Board (HESLB) and the Tanzania Education Authority (TEA). The current system of financing public higher education is in dire need of being revisited to avoid further looming crises in the higher education sector.
The current means for financing higher education in the country which works under the cost-sharing policy include these; Loans and grants from government through higher education students’ loans board, private sources- individual contributions (cost-sharing), sponsors/donors, revenues and tax collection, education levy, contracted research and consultancy.
Therefore, this paper explores a variety of financing systems of higher education the country, its availability and accessibility, who benefit and what to be done.
Loans from government through higher education students’ loans board
This is a way of financing higher education by the government. It is an effective way of funding higher education which can be accessed by majority and increase equity in education from the low income families to the high income families. The effectiveness will depend however on the effectiveness on “means testing” and reduced misconduct by the board personnel. The tool however, has now proved failure to high misconduct of the board personnel, poor means testing, lack of proper and true information for the applicants and low follow-ups on the set criteria.
Private sources and individual contributions (cost-sharing)
It includes the self financed students and those financed by government by percents, it is also another effective way which if used properly could increase students accessibility to higher education but very unfortunately, this has been denied and therefore, everyone need to be included in the grants and loan scheme. Such claims were difficult to find out any written document to support this argument.
Sponsors/Donors
In the year 2004-2005 after the effective take-off of the loan board, all students were supposed to be under the board, no matter who was being financed by who, it was at this point when the role of the Sponsors and donors lost its meaning. This decision was never taken with care, the number of students to be sponsored under the board was also overlooked, the outcome was that, in one moment, the boards found laden with more students that it could handle. Sponsors and donors in this sense refers included, religious foundations and organization, community based organizations and individuals who were sponsoring students at different level.
Donors and sponsors (those who were helping individuals) withdrew from financing higher education at the level of individuals and their role was turned to finance direct to the government.
Revenues and Tax collection plus Education levy
This means of financing higher education could have been a solution to the current problem only if the government could have played its role in the collection of revenues and tax and proper allocation of the fund in the higher education.
There is very low effort by the government to collect loan paybacks from the graduates who were under government sponsorship although the higher education funding policy states vividly that, the graduate shall be given grace period of one year before starting paying the loan which will last for ten to fifteen years, if the cash could have been collected from those graduates it could have helped the higher education finance more students, hence increasing accessibility to higher education. Ishengoma (1998) clarifies that the while domestic revenue has increased by 55% from 2000/01-2005/06, and during the same period Government finance registered consistent deficits between revenue and expenditure implying the Government’s inability to adequately finance critical sectors including higher education and also inability to control its expenditure.
Current policies for funding higher education
There have been several policies formulated since the creation of the Ministry of Science, Technology and Higher Education in 1990s, other policies and utterances from political leaders have also been given out, the major aim was to improve the process of financing higher education. Sources of financing higher education include these; contribution by the owners (infrastructures, buildings and other resources), contribution by beneficiaries, the government ( as main financier provide loans and scholarships), private sector ( encouraged to invest on education), individual and families and finally contribution by higher education institutions.
The 1999 policy as narrated in the number 2.2.5 articulates that; the big imbalance in students’ enrollment between the sciences and humanities shall be addresses. Currently, the policy was used as a determinant of who should get the loan for the on going academic year 2009-10.
The policy as narrated in 2.2.6 states that, deliberate action shall be taken towards increased financing of higher education in general and of higher education institutions in particular in order to facilitate pursuit of the missions of which they each are established. Increased funding towards the critical minimum of 1 to 1.5 percent of GNP shall be the goal. This policy has done nothing to its claims as Ishengoma ( 2008 p.6) narrates that, while domestic revenue increased by 55% from 2000/01-2005/06, during the same period Government finance registered consistent deficits between revenue and expenditure implying the Government’s inability to adequately finance critical sectors including higher education and also inability to control its expenditure. In such situation therefore, it is difficult to expect a miracle to happen in our higher education financing systems.
Another policy is found in 3.2.1 of the MSTHE document of 1999 demanding that, curricular emphasis on higher education shall be placed on programs that are geared towards responding to the changing world of sciences and technology and the corresponding ever –changing needs of the people… as agriculture will continue to be the back-borne of the economy, agricultural related disciplines and technologies shall be given priority. My doubt is, what is the meaning of having good policies with poor teaching technology and manpower? The execution of this policy may remain in the writings than in practical.
3.2.3 Policy states that, the education sector shall be given priority in allocation of resources by the government. Training and research objectives shall target the development and promotion of a strong indigenous base of science and technology to enable Tanzanians solves their development problems.
If Tanzania truly wants to produce strong indigenous base of science and technology, some of the policies needs or should be removed and that, there must be one source of information to avoid current “conflict of interest”. For example, while the Loan board claims that, there is no enough fund to fund all students, the head of the state stands out and declare that, no one student shall miss the university or chased out because of lacking loan.
Also the 5.2.5 policy states clearly that, the student relationship shall be that of the sponsor-sponsoree based on contract terms. The terms shall be clear to all parts. Take a simple loan form used for the academic year 2009/10, the instruction were not clearly stated, it was based on one side, the form dictated the Sponsoree( Student) to fill it quickly and agree to everything written in there, failure to do so or disagreeing meant that, you did not want to get the loan.
Since there are more than 15 policies, this paper can not go through all these but where necessary a policy can be copied as a reference.
How the Process of financing higher education divide the community
i) Equity
These policies do not allow elasticity- that is do not consider other cross-cutting issues that individual may face, example, the claim that, all science students shall be given priority in disbursement of loan and admission in the higher education does not consider students who come from villages where there have never been a laboratory and science materials are rare, therefore, it is vivid that, majority can not enjoy the loans from the loan board.
ii) Accessibility of Loans
Majority of Tanzanian students comes from rural areas where there is limited access to information, the loan board demands students to either download Loan forms from the website or collect them from the post offices, two, the particulars needed to qualify for the loan include certificates of birth, residents, property ownership which these parents do not have, therefore, failure to attach the required information result in missing the loan and miss the access to higher education. Dachi (2000, p.148) copies Woodhall (1989a, 1989b and 1989c:78) that
… no hard evidence to support the argument that, loans deter low income students, ethnic minorities and other marginalized groups from participation in higher education, the system of mandatory grants is restrictive and it is still the upper income families who are most likely to benefit from higher education despite the system of means tested grants.
iii) Quality of Education provided
Though the policies insist on producing our own scientist to cater our own problems there is great doubt about because, most of the studying time is spent on demonstrating for access to loans and good learning facilities.
Two, the increased number of students is inversely proportion to the available facilities starting with accommodation, lecture room, seminar rooms, libraries and the teaching staff. For example, the University of Dar es Salaam has established two learning centers; Center for Continuing Education (CCE) and UDSMAVU Learning Center in 2001 has changed nothing to the lecturer’s pedagogical skills.
Galabawa (2005, p.84) show how technology can be integrated in higher education without segregating others as he says; the first step out of this trap would be to increase enrolment in higher education level in such a manner that, overtime, Tanzania can move into the category of “dynamic leaders” group: with the requisite human-capacity potential to trigger-off technological achievements through new ideas, research and knowledge.
iv) The concept of scarcity
Tanzania can not ignore the truth that, the supply of resources in our production is so limited and therefore, there are extra power needs to be employed to include both students from low income families too. We need scientist, teachers and engineers who will take us to somewhere else, therefore, the following must be included in financing higher education as Galabawa outlines them; (i) the end product (
graduated students) must be allocated among competing uses, assuming that behavior is rational, (ii) resources used in education provision have alternative uses,; thus it is possible to use the same kinds of resources to make different kinds of goods for Tanzanians with the education system itself and outside the education system.
The question comes in, should the state make the higher education scarce so that we may have quality education or allow the influx into higher education and miss the quality? Need more research especially on the rate of return to education, if the higher education has high rate of return both; private and public return regardless of quality let it be, but if not, the state therefore need to rephrase the policies and conduct of financing higher education.
v) Who benefit: Private and Public Returns
When it comes to the question of who benefit from the process of financing higher education, one can conclude that, it is the upper class because the loans scheme especially from the government as the main financier of education is being implanted without taking into consideration other issues like; the level of income of the families, as Dachi( 2000) copies Omari (1994) that…the loans schemes in Tanzania is implemented without taking into consideration family income levels, thus failing to institute a different criterion for disbursing loans between relatively, those who are considered as high income students and low income students.
Private Returns
Private returns refer to those benefits that an individual have after completing education (higher education in this context). There are several returns including;
a) Earnings- the increase of productivity goes direct with the increasing in earnings.
b) Quality Employment- with higher education, one is not going to seek for any job but a quality one, one therefore becomes more productive for himself but also for the community. Currently, more jobs are available for increased job-specific human capital among those with higher levels of education
c) Social status – human being likes being appreciated, that they exist, so when it comes to higher education individual would like to acquire it so as to increase their social status in their working society.
Public Returns
This refers to those benefit of an individual through which the public benefit from, these benefits include the following;
a) Economic growth- education has effect on the growth of the economy of any country in that education increases human capital. More highly educated individuals mean more analysts, and inventors, and scientists working to increase more human capital through the development ideas and technologies and proper implementations of those ideas. Hence more and quality goods are produced for the growth of a stable economy.
b) Development of good citizenry- this benefit need to be understood with a close eye, it is believed that, the society with more educated elites the chances of misconducts is lowered, therefore, these people will understand the importance of voting, cleanness and other society related issues.
The findings
Several findings have been identified from the discussion above; the current financing system do not have a specific criteria of deciding who deserves what, as the result, even the students from well-off families have been included the loan board, two, there is a need of having a guaranteed system of repaying back of loans, scholarships should also be aimed to those in need whose ability to afford the cost of education is almost zero.
Other findings are that, the political statements should be filtered from policy implementation because if this is allowed, the system will always be twisted by those political utterances and statements.
It is also noted that, the connection between education and opportunity has oriented the discourse around those who are most in need of enhanced opportunities. Low income, minority, and disabled students are often the targeted group in this context, and the same general focus has been applied to low-wealth or low-income taxpayers. (Berne& Stiefel…)
What to be done
The financing system in Tanzania has brought the education sector at dilemma, the state is struggling to move forward but there are pitfalls in the financing system that needs to be addressed.
There are several options that the state can deploy to enhance the current financing system, the following may be assistance per the finding; one, finance higher education out of taxation on a small scale, two, the government inter into contact with banks to provide educational loans to students just the same as “Mabilioni ya Kikwete” which was the loans taken from the bank, or else, create a special bank for generating, disbursing and collecting student loans. three, rely on private finance for students who comes from well-off families and, perhaps, a small number on scholarships for Low income, minority, and disabled students an or low-wealth or low-income taxpayers. (Dachi, 2000, Barr, 2004)
Other models of financing higher education in the country include these ones;
a) Potential Graduate Employers
This includes direct donations to the higher institutions from these graduate employers, students and professorial chairs sponsorship.
b) Alumni
These are graduate students who did their studies in that particular institutions, if well organized they can be usefully utilized to generate income for the institutions.
Concluding Observation
Having explored the policies for financing higher education, it is strongly recommended to have up-to-date policies which will have clear distinctions criteria of who deserves what and drop the current system of relying on paper information.
The government may opt for a system of tracing back the financial capabilities of parents therefore when it comes to means-testing it will be easier to come out with true deserving names.
Mshana, Elli
M.A Education Student
UNiversity of Dar es salaam- Tanzania
THE EXTENT OF LUTHERAN CHURCH IN FINANCING SECONDARY EDUCATION IN TANZANIA
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
This Study aim at examining the extent to which Lutheran Seminary Secondary schools/ Owners as partners in the provision of education finance secondary education in Tanzania, taking two secondary schools in Tanga and one in Morogoro region as a case in point. Chapter one will present background information of the research problem, Statement of the research problem, purpose and objective of the Study, limitation and delimitation of the Study, research talks and questions conceptual frame work, significance of the Study, limitation and delimitation of the Study and finally the chapter ends with the definition key concepts.
1.1 Background of the Study
Education is the key to a genuine, informed and engaged citizenship and is thus the cement of greater democracy, respect of human rights, gender equality, peace and stability, (Commonwealth Education Partnership,2004). Financing education is the responsibility of both the government and community in general in order to make sure that every child has access to education. There is need of involving individual persons, NGOs and CBOs in financing education particularly secondary education in order to reduce the government burden of financing education all alone. In line with this view Makene (2004), maintain that, allowing partnership in the provision of secondary education may rid the government of huge expenditure on Secondary education.
More over, different partners can result to competition which in turn can contribute to good performance. Religious organizations, particularly Lutheran Missions, for long time have been active partners in financing Secondary education. This involvement of Lutheran Church has contributed to the quality and high performance of secondary education in these Lutheran owned schools.
To date there are different partners involved in financing Secondary education but Lutheran has taken considerable lead. This is a result of changes in policy, as it has been observed by Sammof (1994) that in 1996 change of policy resulting from the economic crisis and the agreement negotiated with the IMF, meant that private schools which had previously been discouraged but tolerated, was now actively encouraged.
According to Northern Zonal Statistics 2006, in Kilimanjaro and Tanga regions had 28 secondary schools owned by RC,18 Secondary schools under ELCT, one secondary school under Tanzania assembles of God, two secondary school under Seventh Day Adventist, 13 secondary schools under Central Government, 13 secondary under Islamic and 221 secondary schools under Community Based.
However, there is no Study that has been conducted specifically in relation to financing Lutheran Seminary schools. Since the Lutheran Church play an important part of enhancing the equality of education in the country, the researcher sees that there is a need to undertake the Study to examine the sources of revenues of secondary school owned by Lutheran Church in Tanga and Morogoro regions by finding out sources of funds, its management and utilization.
1.2 Statement of the Study
Lutheran Church for a long time has been an active partner in financing education in Tanzania, particularly secondary education. The studies by Cameron and Dodd (1970), and others showed that Churches lead in the provision of quality education in the country.
This has been noted in relation to the expansion of schools built, size of students enrolled, and in terms of extent performance. Moreover, Lutheran based schools have been potential contributors in terms of educational outcomes such as the national skilled manpower. Effective financing of secondary education in Lutheran Seminary schools depend on a number of factors such as sources of funds, its management and utilization of the funds.
Some studies related to financing of education in general have come up with some important information about the involvement of religious organization in promotion of education in Tanzania particularly Lutheran church. However, there is no enough record to show the extent to which Church finance secondary education in Tanzania with special reference to Lutheran Seminary Church owned school in Tanga region.
From the above arguments, therefore the researcher wants to find out the extent to which Lutheran Church as partners in education enterprise finance secondary education through establishing sources of funds, its management and utilization.
1.3.1 The Major Purpose of The Study.
The major purpose of this Study is to find out the extent to which Lutheran Seminary schools as partners in education enterprise finance secondary education.
1.3.2 The Specific Objectives of the Study
Specifically the Study will address the following objectives:
1. To identify sources of fund used in running secondary schools owned by Lutheran Church.
2. To examine the management of the collected funds from the various sources.
3. To analyze the utilization of funds collected from the various sources.
1.4 Research Tasks and Questions
In line with the purpose and objectives, the Study will address three major research tasks and their questions.
Tasks 1
Identifying various sources of funds that are used in running secondary schools owned by Lutheran Church
Research questions
1. What are the main sources of funds that are used in running schools?
2. Does the school have enough sources of funds for its efficient running?
3. How much each student is expected to pay per year as a school fees and other contribution?
Task 2
Examining the management of collected various sources
Research questions
1. Who are involved in planning and making decision of the school budget?
2. Is the school management involved teaching staff and parents in the preparation of school budget?
3. Do the school fund s collected from various sources will managed
Task 3
Analyzing the utilization of the collection from various sources
Research questions
1. What are the activities that have cost elements in assuring quality of teaching/ learning and the general performance of the school?
2. Do you agree that the school funds are well utilized?
1.5 A Conceptual Model for Financing Lutheran Seminary schools Schools in Tanzania.
According to Krishnaswami, (2003) conceptual or theoretical model is the simplified systematic conceptual structures of inter related elements in some schematic from such as narratives statement or mathematical questions. In this Study the conceptual model will be based on the inputs and process variables. It has been argued that there is no single factor that makes a good school and performance. Therefore, the successful school and academic performance depend on:
Input(s) – Where a successful school is with adequate funds from different sources.
Process – Where a successful school is one in which there is efficient management of and utilization of the funds, rational allocation of involvement of all stakeholders in planning and making decision on matters related to expenditure and budget. Monitoring and evaluation of the utilized funds.
Output – where a successful school is one that produces good examination results and good academic performance, highly motivated staffs and well furnished facilities.
Figure 1: Conceptual Model for Financing Education In Lutheran Secondary schools
Source: Mshana, (2010)
1.6 Significance of the Study
This Study is expected to come up with new knowledge of revenue, its management and utilization in Lutheran owned Secondary schools.
Such knowledge will assist planners in education sector, policy makers, managers and other stakeholders on matters related to financing education in Lutheran Owned Secondary schools, Particularly Educational Policy makers.
Finally the Study will develop the interest of future researchers on financing education and the role played by Lutheran Church in financing education in Tanzania particularly secondary education.
1.7 Limitations of Study.
Limitations are those conditions beyond the control of the researcher that may place restrictions on the conclusions of the Study and their applications to other situations.
This Study faces a number of limitations.
There are many schools being run by Lutheran Church but because of limited resources only two secondary schools in Tanga and one in Morogoro regions will be surveyed. Therefore, the sample will be small due to limited resources.
Most of the schools are located in remote areas; the researcher therefore will need immediate transport to and from those remotely located schools the situation that may hinder him.
1.8 Key Definitions of Concepts.
Finance: Refers to availability of necessary funds in order to achieve a desired end.
Partner: One that share in possession or enjoyment of property or something with another one of two or more persons associated as joint principles carrying out any business with a view of getting profit.
Religious organizations: These refer to those organizations under religious faith or denominations. The major categories of religion in the world are Christianity and Islam. Denominations include Lutheran, Roman, Moravian and Pentecostals among Christians. Also they include Muslim Council of Tanzania (BAKATWA), Africa Muslim Agency (AMA), The Aga Khan and others.
Secondary school: These are schools that provide post – primary education. In simple term it just institution that provide education after pupils’ complete primary education.
1.9 Organization of the Study
This is organized into three chapters; one is an introduction; chapter two is review of related literature. Chapter three comprises research methodology.
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 INTRODUCTION
The chapter will be reviewing related literature on sources of revenues in secondary school managed by Lutheran Church. It will comprise a thorough theoretical discourse on the concept of financing, historical background of sources of revenues in education, financing education experience from various countries, organization of secondary schools owned by Lutheran Church in Tanzania.
2. 1 The Meaning of Finance
Bohmler, (1956), define finance as an essential field of economic activity and operate through financial institutions. Finance is a complex concept and can not readily be defined in a single simple statement. For the time being, it will serve our purpose to say that it is frequently termed the “science of money” Finance has to do with obtaining money with saving and spending with borrowing and investing.
Furthermore Zymelman (1973) view financing and its provision for education as an essential separate function. As shown by Galabawa (1994) total government control is common in areas where all education services are reflected in the market provision. However partnership in running secondary school education still carries weight due to the scarce resources especially in developing countries
2.2 Background to the Financing of Secondary Education In Tanzania
Education is one of the largest sectors of the national economy in terms of budgetary allocation and human resources involved. Therefore from these all embracing national policy perspectives the education sector derived the following sectoral policy thrust perspectives the education and Culture (MOEC) which, among other things calls for enhancing of partnership in the provision of education and training through the deliberate efforts of private agencies in the provision of education to establish and manage schools and other education institution at levels.
The traditional partners in the education enterprise have always been the state and the church but over time the landscape and contours have dramatically changed such that in Tanzania today the following have to be included in that financing of education. These included the state, private sector religious institutions non-government organization, community based organization, present, pupils, donors and employees, (Omari, 2002).
Generally, the trend shows that, religious institutions for a very long time have been successful partners in fund raising and financing Secondary education with comparison to other parties, in line with this view, Galabawa (1995) maintain that, the involvement of the Christian Churches in secondary education is extensive. The impetus started in 1986 When the government made a bold call on churches and other Non Governmental Organizations to play an even greater role in the provision of Education and health Services.
Majority of the private secondary schools in Tanzania are owned or managed by Religious organizations. This shows that despite the 1969Education Act, Religious Bodies are still interested in Education and most likely playing their spiritual role of providing essential social services to humanity.
In 1994, Christian churches and organizations managed 141 schools in Tanzania ,while there were only twenty schools run by the Muslims,(Galabawa, 1989).This shows that, religious organization particularly Lutheran Church have been an active partner in the development of education in Tanzania.
2.3 The Need for Financing Education
Financing education is the responsibility of both the government and community in general in making sure that every child has access to education regardless of the resources for financing education. Hence there is a need of involving partners in financing education in order to reduce government burden of financing education. Similarly, the Jomtien Declaration of Education for All (EFA) emphasize on involving partners in financing education since government has no capacity to finance education.
Moreover, with regard to the economic crisis facing most of African countries including Tanzania, it is obvious that, government alone can not take the whole responsibility of providing education to its people, chance encouraging partners and intern linkage in the provision of education training, thought establishing and managing schools and other educational institutions.
It is expected that trough involving partners such as the religious organization, NGO’s COBO’ s and private groups, it will reduce the government burden of financing education as well as improving the quality of educations services provided.
Moreover, different partners can result to competition, which in turn can contribute to good performance. As it has been argued by Mosha, (2000) that, effective financing is a crucial factor in the whole question of academic, he further argued that, effective fund raising enhances quality education while inadequate fund raising my be a source of conflict in schools due to lack of enough facilities and other and other necessary conditions to keep education institutions in harmed running, hence encouraging partnership.
Similarly, Galabawa,(1995), unveil that a sustainable financing and management system is a pre-condition for producing secondary education capacity and maintaining minimum levels of quality cervices effective financing helps to create a positive climate, a thin which motivates both teachers and students. It is a catalyst, which makes everyone in an academic instruction committed so as to be winner and produce winners.
Therefore partnership in education provision is inevitable, for quality education for all has to be attained with regard to economic of developing courtiers including Tanzania .With education, the only solution will to accept private financing of education hence partners like churches.
2.4 Limitations and Strength in Financing Education
Financing may contribute to the decline of quality education or may create classes in the society on the basis of religious and ethnicity. Moreover, some of the partners may not be social demand. Noting the dangers of partnership and inter linkages in education provision, Omari (2002) comment that, a partnership is not a Humanitarian Act, but an economic and social process geared to wards the production of better educations services in the most effective and efficiency manner.
All, in all, financing education provision is most appropriate, since education development will only be accelerated if we share ideas and exchange best practices that promote better targeting of resources. Producer harmony and optimize the quality of the product, which is an education services, secondly there must be common objectives such as making and sharing of profits which is case of education, is the production of a well equipped future generation and satisfying current clients parents and pupils.
Moreover, genuine partnership also requires seriousness of purpose on all side education there fore, this include parents, students and responsible partners as well as the government.
2.5 Economic Policies and Financing EducationThe history of financing education in Tanzania indicates that, resources allocation will in most cases determined by education policy or policies prevailing at a particular time. Important education policies formulated by the government have been supported financially to affect implementation, Galabawa (1995). Educational policy is, thus, a matter of vital importance, and this is clearly reflected in the increasing share of educational expenditure in both the national budget and the GDP, despite the latter relatively rapid growth.
Education financing is typically one of the largest items government expenditure, often claiming as much one or more of the total budget. Spending in education increases in line with population and income growth and is a long –term investment that requires a predicable income source. Task force higher Education and Society,(2000). In addition to that, Galabawa,(1985) comment that, the development of financing education in Tanzania shows that there is a limit to which central government can depend on fiscal to finance education solely from tax-revenue without destabilizing effects. There is a need to go back to the conventional methods of financing education. In addition to that, Structural Adjustment programmer (SAPs), the word Bank (WB) and the International Monetary funds (IMF) advocated reduction in public financing of education, Butcher, (1994).
In implementing the policy the government initiated the Education sector Development programmer (ESDP) in 1997.The overarching objective of the programmer will that of pulling resources trough the involvement of all key stakeholders in education planning implementing, monitoring and evaluation (MOEC,200ia). Its main thrust will be on the enhancement of sources of revenues coordination and cooperation among all educational stakeholders especially religions organizations. .
Table 1: type of Lutheran Secondary school Under Study
S/N Name of school Owner
1 Lwandai Secondary School ELCT-NED
2 Bangala Junior Seminary ELCT-NED
3 Morogoro Junior Seminary ELCT- CD
2.6 SynthesisAnalysis of literature on partnership financing has revealed a number of attributes of interests in partnership financing. It is seems that little research has been done on financing education despite the long history of Lutheran Seminaries as partners who support the finance of education in the country. Lutheran church has been an active partner in financing education particularly secondary education in the country.
The Study of financing in Lutheran Seminary secondary schools is therefore guided by the need to find out various sources of revenue, its management and utilization in Roman Lutheran Secondary School
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3. INTRODUCTION
This chapter presents the research design and methodology that will be employed during data collection. It also covers area of Study. Population, sample and sampling techniques research instruments that will be employed in getting the needed information, validity of the research statements and data analysis plan.
3.1 Research Design
Research design, according to Kothari, (1990) is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure. Krishnaswami (2003) defines research design as a logical and systematic plan prepared for directing a research Study.
It specifies the objective of the Study, the methodology and the techniques to be adopted for achieving the objectives. It is a blue print for the collection, measurement and analysis of data. A good research design is the one, which is flexible, appropriate, and economical, minimizes bias, and maximizes there liability of data collected.
The research design differs depending on the purpose of conducting the Study .The research problem determines the type of the design that cold achieve the desired results and required research question .In this Study, a survey research design will adopted. Krishnaswami (2003) view survey as a’ fact –finding’ Study. It is a design of research involving collection of data directly from the population or a sample at particular time. Data may be collected by observation, or interviewing or mailing questionnaires.
In this Study, Qualitative and Quantitative research approaches will both be employed for data collection. In the case of qualitative research approach, interview schedule will be conducted with parents. While for quantitative research approach, questionnaires will be administered to three heads of school who will purposefully sample and 36 teaching staff who will be randomly selected.
3.2 Area of Study
The Study will be conducted in two secondaries owned by Lutheran Church in Tanga and one in Morogoro regions, namely, Lwandai, Bangala Junior and Morogoro Junior Secondary schools. Tanga and Morogoro regions will be chosen because of their familiarity and accessibility to the researcher and its likelihood obtain the needed information for the Study.
3.3 Population
A researcher must know what kind of information she/he wants, who has the information and where to find the person. The people that a researcher has in mind from who she/he can obtain information are called population. Population according to Krishnaswami(2003) is the aggregate or all the units pertaining to a Study; It is the target group to be studied. It is the unit or group of units with one or more characteristic in common that is of interests to the researcher. he population of this Study comprised all secondary schools owned by Lutheran Church in Tanzania.
Due to financial constraints, it will not possible for the researcher to research all schools managed by Lutheran Church in Tanzania, therefore, the target population for this Study will be three secondary schools managed by Lutheran Church in Tanga and Morogoro regions. This sample of the population will select bearing in mind that, the knowledge that will generate from the Study, represented the whole population.
3.3.1 Samples
It is not possible that everybody among the accessible population can participate. So, the research would plan of a small proportion to select who to participate. The Process of selecting the participants is called sampling. Kothari,(1990) define sample as a smaller group of subjects drawn from the population in which a researcher is interested in gaining information and drawing conclusion about the universe if randomly obtained.
Sample is the part of a population. The use of sample in conducting research may be necessitated by some physical social and economic constraints that surround the researcher. In supporting this view, Kenya Makau and Mani(1989) argued that, financial, physical and social constraints might force a researcher to rely only on the part of population to obtain information. Moreover, the use of samples enables the research samples enables the researcher to achieve the same research objectives with reduced resources. The general role that governs the samples is that, the findings on it should reflect as much as possible similar characteristics of those of the findings, which would be obtained. The samples for this Study will respondents from three secondary schools owned by Lutheran Church in Tanga and Morogoro Regions.
3.3.2 Sampling Procedures
Sampling procedure or techniques is a definite plan for obtaining sample from a population. Krishinaswami (2003), define sampling as a process of drawing sample from a large population. In this Study, both simple and random sampling will be used. Simple random sampling is the type of sampling, which provides equal chance to every member in the population to be included in the Study. The researcher prefers simple random sampling for teachers because it reduced bias and errors. Thirty six teachers will be randomly sampled from three schools that will be involved in the Study.
Purposive sampling, on the other hand, is the type of sampling in which the researcher selects samples based on a certain purpose. It will prefer because it enables the researcher to solicit relevant information. In this Study, three head of schools will be purposely sampled for the administered questionnaire. On the other hand, twelve parents will be randomly sampled. This makes a total number of fifty –one respondents.
3..4 Instruments for Data Collection
A researcher cannot collect data without instruments. An instrument is a method of data collection. It makes it easy for the researcher to collection information. The task of the researcher is, therefore, to select suitable instruments data collection the task of carrying out any research investigation must be accompanied with the collection of data.
Many different methods and procedures have been developed to aid in the acquisition of data. These instruments employ distinctive ways of describing and quantifying the data. Each method or instrument is appropriate for certain sources of data, yielding information of the kind and in the form that can be most effectively used, this is according to Best an Khan,(1989). For this particular Study, the researcher instruments in collecting data, namely, documentary reviews, interview guides and questionnaires.
3.4.1 Documentary Review
This involves deriving information by carefully Studying written documents, or visual information from sources called documents. These will include the textbooks, newspapers, articles, speeches, pictures and files. The documents that will be reviewed include various studies related to the subject of Study, which will be obtained from the main library, University of Dar es salaam.
Other documents will be obtained from the schools under Study like the joining instructions, December,(1998), argued that, using documentary review as an instrument of data collection has the following advantages, first, the documents, are easily and in expensively be accessed secondary they are cost effective methods of collecting data,. Two, they provide a source of data which is permanent and available in form that can be checked and they are open to public.
3.4.2 Interview Schedule
In this Study the researcher will prepare structured and unstructured interview questions and conduct interviews with twelve parents who have their children studying in the schools under Study.
Interview is one of the major methods of data collection. Krishanswami 2003), define inter view as a two way systematic conversation between an investigator and an informant, initiated for obtaining information relevant to a specific Study. Interviewing require face contact over telephone.
This is another research instrument that the research employed in collecting data. Cohen, Manion and Morrison, (2000) define research interview as a two – person conversation initiated by interview for specific purpose of obtaining relevant information. It is a research instrument for data collection that involves the collection of data through direct verbal interaction between the interviewee. The interview technique requires the researcher ask question.
It is advantageous because it is quite flexible, adaptable and can be used on many people. Information can be obtained in detail and can be well explained; moreover interview can gather other supplementary information. The interviewer can do more things to improve the percentage of responses and quality of information received.
However, the researcher will find it disadvantageous in that, the interviewees may be highly subjective, biased shy or express discomfort in response. At time they may be unwilling to respond, or questions may be wrong and my take a lot of time to respond to the Study, another limitation is that, personal, and financial information may be refused if face to face interview poses the problem of recording information obtained from the respondent The researcher prepared interview guide on major areas to be investigated. Semi structured and structured interview guide on major areas to be investigated. Semi structured and unstructured interview questions will prepared. Then she held an interview with ten parents who will be randomly selected who had children studying in those schools under Study.
3.4.3 Questionnaire
The researcher will administer questionnaire in person to three heads of school who will be purposively sample and thirty-six teaching staff who will randomly be sampled from three Lutheran Seminary secondary schools involved in this Study.
According to Keya, Makau and Mani (1989), questionnaire has been defined as a formatted set of questions that are drawn up to meet the objectives of the survey. It involves the use of written down items to which the respondent individually responds in writing. The items will be in the form of statement or questions.
3.5 Validity of Research Instruments
In any research, the fundamental rule of the thumb is that every information we get must be accurate. This implies that what we use to obtain that information must also be accurate. Validity in research implies of a research instrument, validity of research procedure (technique), and validity of the research findings (report).
3.6 Procedure for Data Collection
The researcher will introduce himself to all the respective authorities in Tanga and Morogoro regions where the Study will be conducted. After gaining the needed recognition from the relevant respondent s as well as administering the questionnaires in person to the heads of school the researcher will arrange the timetable so as conduct interviews to the sampled parents, teaching staff.
3.3.9 Data Analysis Plan
According to Kothari,(1990), data analysis is a process, which implies editing, coding classification and tabulations of collected data. In this proposal data that will obtained through various procedures will be summarized in table, moreover the no numerical data will be subjected to content analysis.
3.3.10 Ethical Consideration
According to Krishnaswami (2003) Issues of ethics arise primarily out of researcher’s relation with sponsors of research, those who permit access to sources of data and research participants /respondents. He further argued that, of all the ethical issues, the issues concerned with the respondents are far more important, since they constitute the research subject and their individuals from who data are obtained. Taking into consideration this fact the researcher will assure the respondent confidentiality on given information. For those respondents who will be supposed to fill in the questionnaires these will be directed to write down their names or titles.
REFERENCE
Best, J. and Kahn, J. (1993). Research In Education, New York: Allyn Bacon Inc.
Cameron, J. and odd, W. (1970) Society, School And Progress in Tanzania, Oxford: Pergamon Press.
Cohen, L., Marion, L. and Morrison, K. (2000). Research Methods in Education. London: Root Ledge.
Commonwealth (2000) Common Wealth Education Partnership. London: The Stationary Office.
Galabawa, J.C.J. (1995); Financing Education Development, With A Case of Tanzania, Department Of Education: University of Dar es salaam.
Galabawa, J.C.J ( 1989); “Mobilization allocation And Management Of Financial Resources For Education In Tanzania” pamphlet, Department of Education, University of Dar es Salaam.
Keya, S.O., Makau, B.F., and Man, J. (1989); Guidelines For The Formulation of Research Project Proposal. Nairobi, Oxford University Press.
Kothari, C. (1990); Research Methodology: Methods And Technology: New Delhi: Wiley Eastern Ltd.
Krishnaswami, O.R (2003). Methodology Of Research In Social Sciences, Mumbai: Himalaya Publishing House.
Masudi, A. (1986). The Contribution Of Religious Organizations To The development Of Private Schools In Tanzania, M.A. Thesis, UDSM.
Ministry of Education and Culture (2002a). Education Sector development Program. Dar es Salaam, Ministry of Education and Culture.
Omari, I. ( 2002). “Partnership In Education Provision”, PED, No.22, Faculty Of Education, University of Dar es Salaam.
Sammoff, J. (1994). Copping With Crisis, UNESCO, New York.
United Republic of Tanzania, (1995): Education and Training Policy, MOEC, Dar es Salaam.
Zymelman, M. (1973). Financing And Efficiency In Education: Reference For Administration And Policy Making. Boston: The Nimrod Press.
Appendix A
QUESTIONNAIRE FOR HEADS OF SCHOOL
A. INTRODUCTION
Lutheran Church for a long time has been active contributors in financing education in Tanzania, particularly Secondary education. The purpose of this study and this questionnaire is to solicit some information on financing in Secondary schools by Lutheran schools.
The information will help to have a better understanding on the issues related to finance and the sources of the funds used to run those secondary schools owned by Lutheran Church. The information that obtained shall confidentially be used for the above stated purpose only and not for malicious intentions.
Please note: Your name should not appear anywhere in this questionnaire.
Thank You.
B. background information of the school
1. Name of the School …...................................
2. Owner of the School …................................
3. District ….....................................................
4. In which year the School was started? …......
5. Number of Students enrolled in 2009?
Please, indicate in the table provided.
FORM BOYS GIRLS TOTAL
6. Number of teaching staff and their qualifications
Please, indicate in the table provided
Qualification Number of Teachers
1. Form Sis
2. Diploma ( Non-education)
3. Diploma in Education
4. University Degree (No-Education)
5. University Degree ( Education)
6. Postgraduate diploma in Education
7. Postgraduate degree ( Masters)
Male.................. Female.................. Total.......................
7. Number of Supporting Staff
C. PLEASE ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS BY CHOOSING THE MOST CORRECT RESPONSE TO YOU
1. What are the main sources of revenue used in running the school?
(a) School fees
(b) Contribution from parents
(c) Donors
(d) Funds rising
(e) Others, please specify..................................................................
…...............................................................................................
2. In your view, does the school have enough sources of revenue for its efficiency operation?
(a) Yes
(b) No
3. Who is involved in planning and making decision of the school budget? Please, choose the following:
(a) Heads of the school
(b) Teaching staffs and heads Owners
(c) Managers, Heads and School owners
(d) Members of the School board
(e) Others please specify...............................................................................................
4. Do you agree that, the revenue collected from various sources is well managed?
(a) Strongly Agree
(b) Agree
( c) Disagree
( d) Strongly disagree
5. Would you agree that adequate funding, its proper management and utilization increased Student performance?
(a) Strongly agree
( b) Agree
( c) Disagree
( d) Strongly Disagree
6. How would you value the relationship between adequate funds, its proper management and utilization towards Students performance?
(a) Very high
(b) High
(c) Fair
(d) Low
7. What are the future prospects of the School?
a) Looking for more resources
b) Looking for more Degree holder teachers
c) Increasing capacity building of the school
d) Any other
APPENDIX B
QUESTIONNAIRE FOR THE TEACHING STAFF
A. INTRODUCTION
Lutheran Church for a long time has been active contributors in financing education in Tanzania, particularly Secondary education. The purpose of this study and this questionnaire is to solicit some information on financing Secondary schools by Lutheran schools.
The information will help to have a better understanding on the issues related to finance and the sources of the funds used to run those secondary schools owned by Lutheran Church. The information that obtained shall confidentially be used for the above stated purpose only and not for malicious intentions.
Please note: Your name should not appear anywhere in this questionnaire.
Thank You.
B. PERSONAL INFORMATION
Name of the School...............................................................................
Owner of the School ….......................................................................
District.................................................................................................
1. Sex:
(a) Male
(b) Female
2. Age...............................................................................................
3. Marital status: Married_____ Single______Widow____
4. Religion/Denomination...............................................
5. What is your highest level of academic qualification? Please tick where it is appropriate
( a) Form Six
( b) Diploma ( Non-education)
( c) Diploma in education
( d) University degree ( Non-degree)
( e ) University degree Education
( f ) Postgraduate degree
6. Years of Teaching Experience …......................................................
7. Years of Teaching in this school.......................................................
B. PLEASE ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS BY CHOOSING THE MOST CORRECT TO YOU
1. What are the main sources of revenue used in running the School?
( a) School fees
( b) Contribution from Parents
( c ) Donors
( d ) Fundrising
( e ) Others, Please mention them …..................................................................
2. In your view, does the school have enough sources of finance for its efficiency operations?
( a ) Yes
( b ) No
3. Please choose the most appropriate opinion about the academic performance of the school?
( a ) The School performance poor
( b ) The School performance is average
( c ) The Performance is well
( d ) The performance is very well
4. Does the School management pay you well?
( a ) Yes
( b ) No
( c ) At least
( d ) Not at all
5. Do you agree that, adequate salaries have increased teachers' morale and good performance of the school in general?
( a ) Strongly agree
( b ) Agree
( c ) Disagree
( d ) Strongly disagree
( e ) I am not sure
6. Does the school management involve teaching Staff in the preparation of the budget? Please choose among the following;
( a ) Yes
( b ) No
( c ) Not Sure
APPENDIX C
INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR PARENTS/ GURDIANS
Q1. Why did you send your child in this school and not in other schools?
Q2. Does your child perform well academically?
Q3. How do you compare your child academic performance with other children who are studying in other schools?
Q4. How much fee do you pay annually?
Q5. Apart from school fees, what are other contributions that the school owes you?
Q6. In your view, does the school have enough sources of finance?
Q7. Who are involved in the process of financing education in this school?
Q8. Do you consider the fees and other sources of finance paid to school enough for running the school.
ELINEEMA MSHANA,
Masters Of Arts in Education
University of Dar es salaam
February 23, 2010
Dedicated to Michelle Holmes: Thank you For being my Friend
INTRODUCTION
This Study aim at examining the extent to which Lutheran Seminary Secondary schools/ Owners as partners in the provision of education finance secondary education in Tanzania, taking two secondary schools in Tanga and one in Morogoro region as a case in point. Chapter one will present background information of the research problem, Statement of the research problem, purpose and objective of the Study, limitation and delimitation of the Study, research talks and questions conceptual frame work, significance of the Study, limitation and delimitation of the Study and finally the chapter ends with the definition key concepts.
1.1 Background of the Study
Education is the key to a genuine, informed and engaged citizenship and is thus the cement of greater democracy, respect of human rights, gender equality, peace and stability, (Commonwealth Education Partnership,2004). Financing education is the responsibility of both the government and community in general in order to make sure that every child has access to education. There is need of involving individual persons, NGOs and CBOs in financing education particularly secondary education in order to reduce the government burden of financing education all alone. In line with this view Makene (2004), maintain that, allowing partnership in the provision of secondary education may rid the government of huge expenditure on Secondary education.
More over, different partners can result to competition which in turn can contribute to good performance. Religious organizations, particularly Lutheran Missions, for long time have been active partners in financing Secondary education. This involvement of Lutheran Church has contributed to the quality and high performance of secondary education in these Lutheran owned schools.
To date there are different partners involved in financing Secondary education but Lutheran has taken considerable lead. This is a result of changes in policy, as it has been observed by Sammof (1994) that in 1996 change of policy resulting from the economic crisis and the agreement negotiated with the IMF, meant that private schools which had previously been discouraged but tolerated, was now actively encouraged.
According to Northern Zonal Statistics 2006, in Kilimanjaro and Tanga regions had 28 secondary schools owned by RC,18 Secondary schools under ELCT, one secondary school under Tanzania assembles of God, two secondary school under Seventh Day Adventist, 13 secondary schools under Central Government, 13 secondary under Islamic and 221 secondary schools under Community Based.
However, there is no Study that has been conducted specifically in relation to financing Lutheran Seminary schools. Since the Lutheran Church play an important part of enhancing the equality of education in the country, the researcher sees that there is a need to undertake the Study to examine the sources of revenues of secondary school owned by Lutheran Church in Tanga and Morogoro regions by finding out sources of funds, its management and utilization.
1.2 Statement of the Study
Lutheran Church for a long time has been an active partner in financing education in Tanzania, particularly secondary education. The studies by Cameron and Dodd (1970), and others showed that Churches lead in the provision of quality education in the country.
This has been noted in relation to the expansion of schools built, size of students enrolled, and in terms of extent performance. Moreover, Lutheran based schools have been potential contributors in terms of educational outcomes such as the national skilled manpower. Effective financing of secondary education in Lutheran Seminary schools depend on a number of factors such as sources of funds, its management and utilization of the funds.
Some studies related to financing of education in general have come up with some important information about the involvement of religious organization in promotion of education in Tanzania particularly Lutheran church. However, there is no enough record to show the extent to which Church finance secondary education in Tanzania with special reference to Lutheran Seminary Church owned school in Tanga region.
From the above arguments, therefore the researcher wants to find out the extent to which Lutheran Church as partners in education enterprise finance secondary education through establishing sources of funds, its management and utilization.
1.3.1 The Major Purpose of The Study.
The major purpose of this Study is to find out the extent to which Lutheran Seminary schools as partners in education enterprise finance secondary education.
1.3.2 The Specific Objectives of the Study
Specifically the Study will address the following objectives:
1. To identify sources of fund used in running secondary schools owned by Lutheran Church.
2. To examine the management of the collected funds from the various sources.
3. To analyze the utilization of funds collected from the various sources.
1.4 Research Tasks and Questions
In line with the purpose and objectives, the Study will address three major research tasks and their questions.
Tasks 1
Identifying various sources of funds that are used in running secondary schools owned by Lutheran Church
Research questions
1. What are the main sources of funds that are used in running schools?
2. Does the school have enough sources of funds for its efficient running?
3. How much each student is expected to pay per year as a school fees and other contribution?
Task 2
Examining the management of collected various sources
Research questions
1. Who are involved in planning and making decision of the school budget?
2. Is the school management involved teaching staff and parents in the preparation of school budget?
3. Do the school fund s collected from various sources will managed
Task 3
Analyzing the utilization of the collection from various sources
Research questions
1. What are the activities that have cost elements in assuring quality of teaching/ learning and the general performance of the school?
2. Do you agree that the school funds are well utilized?
1.5 A Conceptual Model for Financing Lutheran Seminary schools Schools in Tanzania.
According to Krishnaswami, (2003) conceptual or theoretical model is the simplified systematic conceptual structures of inter related elements in some schematic from such as narratives statement or mathematical questions. In this Study the conceptual model will be based on the inputs and process variables. It has been argued that there is no single factor that makes a good school and performance. Therefore, the successful school and academic performance depend on:
Input(s) – Where a successful school is with adequate funds from different sources.
Process – Where a successful school is one in which there is efficient management of and utilization of the funds, rational allocation of involvement of all stakeholders in planning and making decision on matters related to expenditure and budget. Monitoring and evaluation of the utilized funds.
Output – where a successful school is one that produces good examination results and good academic performance, highly motivated staffs and well furnished facilities.
Figure 1: Conceptual Model for Financing Education In Lutheran Secondary schools
Source: Mshana, (2010)
1.6 Significance of the Study
This Study is expected to come up with new knowledge of revenue, its management and utilization in Lutheran owned Secondary schools.
Such knowledge will assist planners in education sector, policy makers, managers and other stakeholders on matters related to financing education in Lutheran Owned Secondary schools, Particularly Educational Policy makers.
Finally the Study will develop the interest of future researchers on financing education and the role played by Lutheran Church in financing education in Tanzania particularly secondary education.
1.7 Limitations of Study.
Limitations are those conditions beyond the control of the researcher that may place restrictions on the conclusions of the Study and their applications to other situations.
This Study faces a number of limitations.
There are many schools being run by Lutheran Church but because of limited resources only two secondary schools in Tanga and one in Morogoro regions will be surveyed. Therefore, the sample will be small due to limited resources.
Most of the schools are located in remote areas; the researcher therefore will need immediate transport to and from those remotely located schools the situation that may hinder him.
1.8 Key Definitions of Concepts.
Finance: Refers to availability of necessary funds in order to achieve a desired end.
Partner: One that share in possession or enjoyment of property or something with another one of two or more persons associated as joint principles carrying out any business with a view of getting profit.
Religious organizations: These refer to those organizations under religious faith or denominations. The major categories of religion in the world are Christianity and Islam. Denominations include Lutheran, Roman, Moravian and Pentecostals among Christians. Also they include Muslim Council of Tanzania (BAKATWA), Africa Muslim Agency (AMA), The Aga Khan and others.
Secondary school: These are schools that provide post – primary education. In simple term it just institution that provide education after pupils’ complete primary education.
1.9 Organization of the Study
This is organized into three chapters; one is an introduction; chapter two is review of related literature. Chapter three comprises research methodology.
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 INTRODUCTION
The chapter will be reviewing related literature on sources of revenues in secondary school managed by Lutheran Church. It will comprise a thorough theoretical discourse on the concept of financing, historical background of sources of revenues in education, financing education experience from various countries, organization of secondary schools owned by Lutheran Church in Tanzania.
2. 1 The Meaning of Finance
Bohmler, (1956), define finance as an essential field of economic activity and operate through financial institutions. Finance is a complex concept and can not readily be defined in a single simple statement. For the time being, it will serve our purpose to say that it is frequently termed the “science of money” Finance has to do with obtaining money with saving and spending with borrowing and investing.
Furthermore Zymelman (1973) view financing and its provision for education as an essential separate function. As shown by Galabawa (1994) total government control is common in areas where all education services are reflected in the market provision. However partnership in running secondary school education still carries weight due to the scarce resources especially in developing countries
2.2 Background to the Financing of Secondary Education In Tanzania
Education is one of the largest sectors of the national economy in terms of budgetary allocation and human resources involved. Therefore from these all embracing national policy perspectives the education sector derived the following sectoral policy thrust perspectives the education and Culture (MOEC) which, among other things calls for enhancing of partnership in the provision of education and training through the deliberate efforts of private agencies in the provision of education to establish and manage schools and other education institution at levels.
The traditional partners in the education enterprise have always been the state and the church but over time the landscape and contours have dramatically changed such that in Tanzania today the following have to be included in that financing of education. These included the state, private sector religious institutions non-government organization, community based organization, present, pupils, donors and employees, (Omari, 2002).
Generally, the trend shows that, religious institutions for a very long time have been successful partners in fund raising and financing Secondary education with comparison to other parties, in line with this view, Galabawa (1995) maintain that, the involvement of the Christian Churches in secondary education is extensive. The impetus started in 1986 When the government made a bold call on churches and other Non Governmental Organizations to play an even greater role in the provision of Education and health Services.
Majority of the private secondary schools in Tanzania are owned or managed by Religious organizations. This shows that despite the 1969Education Act, Religious Bodies are still interested in Education and most likely playing their spiritual role of providing essential social services to humanity.
In 1994, Christian churches and organizations managed 141 schools in Tanzania ,while there were only twenty schools run by the Muslims,(Galabawa, 1989).This shows that, religious organization particularly Lutheran Church have been an active partner in the development of education in Tanzania.
2.3 The Need for Financing Education
Financing education is the responsibility of both the government and community in general in making sure that every child has access to education regardless of the resources for financing education. Hence there is a need of involving partners in financing education in order to reduce government burden of financing education. Similarly, the Jomtien Declaration of Education for All (EFA) emphasize on involving partners in financing education since government has no capacity to finance education.
Moreover, with regard to the economic crisis facing most of African countries including Tanzania, it is obvious that, government alone can not take the whole responsibility of providing education to its people, chance encouraging partners and intern linkage in the provision of education training, thought establishing and managing schools and other educational institutions.
It is expected that trough involving partners such as the religious organization, NGO’s COBO’ s and private groups, it will reduce the government burden of financing education as well as improving the quality of educations services provided.
Moreover, different partners can result to competition, which in turn can contribute to good performance. As it has been argued by Mosha, (2000) that, effective financing is a crucial factor in the whole question of academic, he further argued that, effective fund raising enhances quality education while inadequate fund raising my be a source of conflict in schools due to lack of enough facilities and other and other necessary conditions to keep education institutions in harmed running, hence encouraging partnership.
Similarly, Galabawa,(1995), unveil that a sustainable financing and management system is a pre-condition for producing secondary education capacity and maintaining minimum levels of quality cervices effective financing helps to create a positive climate, a thin which motivates both teachers and students. It is a catalyst, which makes everyone in an academic instruction committed so as to be winner and produce winners.
Therefore partnership in education provision is inevitable, for quality education for all has to be attained with regard to economic of developing courtiers including Tanzania .With education, the only solution will to accept private financing of education hence partners like churches.
2.4 Limitations and Strength in Financing Education
Financing may contribute to the decline of quality education or may create classes in the society on the basis of religious and ethnicity. Moreover, some of the partners may not be social demand. Noting the dangers of partnership and inter linkages in education provision, Omari (2002) comment that, a partnership is not a Humanitarian Act, but an economic and social process geared to wards the production of better educations services in the most effective and efficiency manner.
All, in all, financing education provision is most appropriate, since education development will only be accelerated if we share ideas and exchange best practices that promote better targeting of resources. Producer harmony and optimize the quality of the product, which is an education services, secondly there must be common objectives such as making and sharing of profits which is case of education, is the production of a well equipped future generation and satisfying current clients parents and pupils.
Moreover, genuine partnership also requires seriousness of purpose on all side education there fore, this include parents, students and responsible partners as well as the government.
2.5 Economic Policies and Financing EducationThe history of financing education in Tanzania indicates that, resources allocation will in most cases determined by education policy or policies prevailing at a particular time. Important education policies formulated by the government have been supported financially to affect implementation, Galabawa (1995). Educational policy is, thus, a matter of vital importance, and this is clearly reflected in the increasing share of educational expenditure in both the national budget and the GDP, despite the latter relatively rapid growth.
Education financing is typically one of the largest items government expenditure, often claiming as much one or more of the total budget. Spending in education increases in line with population and income growth and is a long –term investment that requires a predicable income source. Task force higher Education and Society,(2000). In addition to that, Galabawa,(1985) comment that, the development of financing education in Tanzania shows that there is a limit to which central government can depend on fiscal to finance education solely from tax-revenue without destabilizing effects. There is a need to go back to the conventional methods of financing education. In addition to that, Structural Adjustment programmer (SAPs), the word Bank (WB) and the International Monetary funds (IMF) advocated reduction in public financing of education, Butcher, (1994).
In implementing the policy the government initiated the Education sector Development programmer (ESDP) in 1997.The overarching objective of the programmer will that of pulling resources trough the involvement of all key stakeholders in education planning implementing, monitoring and evaluation (MOEC,200ia). Its main thrust will be on the enhancement of sources of revenues coordination and cooperation among all educational stakeholders especially religions organizations. .
Table 1: type of Lutheran Secondary school Under Study
S/N Name of school Owner
1 Lwandai Secondary School ELCT-NED
2 Bangala Junior Seminary ELCT-NED
3 Morogoro Junior Seminary ELCT- CD
2.6 SynthesisAnalysis of literature on partnership financing has revealed a number of attributes of interests in partnership financing. It is seems that little research has been done on financing education despite the long history of Lutheran Seminaries as partners who support the finance of education in the country. Lutheran church has been an active partner in financing education particularly secondary education in the country.
The Study of financing in Lutheran Seminary secondary schools is therefore guided by the need to find out various sources of revenue, its management and utilization in Roman Lutheran Secondary School
CHAPTER THREE
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
3. INTRODUCTION
This chapter presents the research design and methodology that will be employed during data collection. It also covers area of Study. Population, sample and sampling techniques research instruments that will be employed in getting the needed information, validity of the research statements and data analysis plan.
3.1 Research Design
Research design, according to Kothari, (1990) is the arrangement of conditions for collection and analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with economy in procedure. Krishnaswami (2003) defines research design as a logical and systematic plan prepared for directing a research Study.
It specifies the objective of the Study, the methodology and the techniques to be adopted for achieving the objectives. It is a blue print for the collection, measurement and analysis of data. A good research design is the one, which is flexible, appropriate, and economical, minimizes bias, and maximizes there liability of data collected.
The research design differs depending on the purpose of conducting the Study .The research problem determines the type of the design that cold achieve the desired results and required research question .In this Study, a survey research design will adopted. Krishnaswami (2003) view survey as a’ fact –finding’ Study. It is a design of research involving collection of data directly from the population or a sample at particular time. Data may be collected by observation, or interviewing or mailing questionnaires.
In this Study, Qualitative and Quantitative research approaches will both be employed for data collection. In the case of qualitative research approach, interview schedule will be conducted with parents. While for quantitative research approach, questionnaires will be administered to three heads of school who will purposefully sample and 36 teaching staff who will be randomly selected.
3.2 Area of Study
The Study will be conducted in two secondaries owned by Lutheran Church in Tanga and one in Morogoro regions, namely, Lwandai, Bangala Junior and Morogoro Junior Secondary schools. Tanga and Morogoro regions will be chosen because of their familiarity and accessibility to the researcher and its likelihood obtain the needed information for the Study.
3.3 Population
A researcher must know what kind of information she/he wants, who has the information and where to find the person. The people that a researcher has in mind from who she/he can obtain information are called population. Population according to Krishnaswami(2003) is the aggregate or all the units pertaining to a Study; It is the target group to be studied. It is the unit or group of units with one or more characteristic in common that is of interests to the researcher. he population of this Study comprised all secondary schools owned by Lutheran Church in Tanzania.
Due to financial constraints, it will not possible for the researcher to research all schools managed by Lutheran Church in Tanzania, therefore, the target population for this Study will be three secondary schools managed by Lutheran Church in Tanga and Morogoro regions. This sample of the population will select bearing in mind that, the knowledge that will generate from the Study, represented the whole population.
3.3.1 Samples
It is not possible that everybody among the accessible population can participate. So, the research would plan of a small proportion to select who to participate. The Process of selecting the participants is called sampling. Kothari,(1990) define sample as a smaller group of subjects drawn from the population in which a researcher is interested in gaining information and drawing conclusion about the universe if randomly obtained.
Sample is the part of a population. The use of sample in conducting research may be necessitated by some physical social and economic constraints that surround the researcher. In supporting this view, Kenya Makau and Mani(1989) argued that, financial, physical and social constraints might force a researcher to rely only on the part of population to obtain information. Moreover, the use of samples enables the research samples enables the researcher to achieve the same research objectives with reduced resources. The general role that governs the samples is that, the findings on it should reflect as much as possible similar characteristics of those of the findings, which would be obtained. The samples for this Study will respondents from three secondary schools owned by Lutheran Church in Tanga and Morogoro Regions.
3.3.2 Sampling Procedures
Sampling procedure or techniques is a definite plan for obtaining sample from a population. Krishinaswami (2003), define sampling as a process of drawing sample from a large population. In this Study, both simple and random sampling will be used. Simple random sampling is the type of sampling, which provides equal chance to every member in the population to be included in the Study. The researcher prefers simple random sampling for teachers because it reduced bias and errors. Thirty six teachers will be randomly sampled from three schools that will be involved in the Study.
Purposive sampling, on the other hand, is the type of sampling in which the researcher selects samples based on a certain purpose. It will prefer because it enables the researcher to solicit relevant information. In this Study, three head of schools will be purposely sampled for the administered questionnaire. On the other hand, twelve parents will be randomly sampled. This makes a total number of fifty –one respondents.
3..4 Instruments for Data Collection
A researcher cannot collect data without instruments. An instrument is a method of data collection. It makes it easy for the researcher to collection information. The task of the researcher is, therefore, to select suitable instruments data collection the task of carrying out any research investigation must be accompanied with the collection of data.
Many different methods and procedures have been developed to aid in the acquisition of data. These instruments employ distinctive ways of describing and quantifying the data. Each method or instrument is appropriate for certain sources of data, yielding information of the kind and in the form that can be most effectively used, this is according to Best an Khan,(1989). For this particular Study, the researcher instruments in collecting data, namely, documentary reviews, interview guides and questionnaires.
3.4.1 Documentary Review
This involves deriving information by carefully Studying written documents, or visual information from sources called documents. These will include the textbooks, newspapers, articles, speeches, pictures and files. The documents that will be reviewed include various studies related to the subject of Study, which will be obtained from the main library, University of Dar es salaam.
Other documents will be obtained from the schools under Study like the joining instructions, December,(1998), argued that, using documentary review as an instrument of data collection has the following advantages, first, the documents, are easily and in expensively be accessed secondary they are cost effective methods of collecting data,. Two, they provide a source of data which is permanent and available in form that can be checked and they are open to public.
3.4.2 Interview Schedule
In this Study the researcher will prepare structured and unstructured interview questions and conduct interviews with twelve parents who have their children studying in the schools under Study.
Interview is one of the major methods of data collection. Krishanswami 2003), define inter view as a two way systematic conversation between an investigator and an informant, initiated for obtaining information relevant to a specific Study. Interviewing require face contact over telephone.
This is another research instrument that the research employed in collecting data. Cohen, Manion and Morrison, (2000) define research interview as a two – person conversation initiated by interview for specific purpose of obtaining relevant information. It is a research instrument for data collection that involves the collection of data through direct verbal interaction between the interviewee. The interview technique requires the researcher ask question.
It is advantageous because it is quite flexible, adaptable and can be used on many people. Information can be obtained in detail and can be well explained; moreover interview can gather other supplementary information. The interviewer can do more things to improve the percentage of responses and quality of information received.
However, the researcher will find it disadvantageous in that, the interviewees may be highly subjective, biased shy or express discomfort in response. At time they may be unwilling to respond, or questions may be wrong and my take a lot of time to respond to the Study, another limitation is that, personal, and financial information may be refused if face to face interview poses the problem of recording information obtained from the respondent The researcher prepared interview guide on major areas to be investigated. Semi structured and structured interview guide on major areas to be investigated. Semi structured and unstructured interview questions will prepared. Then she held an interview with ten parents who will be randomly selected who had children studying in those schools under Study.
3.4.3 Questionnaire
The researcher will administer questionnaire in person to three heads of school who will be purposively sample and thirty-six teaching staff who will randomly be sampled from three Lutheran Seminary secondary schools involved in this Study.
According to Keya, Makau and Mani (1989), questionnaire has been defined as a formatted set of questions that are drawn up to meet the objectives of the survey. It involves the use of written down items to which the respondent individually responds in writing. The items will be in the form of statement or questions.
3.5 Validity of Research Instruments
In any research, the fundamental rule of the thumb is that every information we get must be accurate. This implies that what we use to obtain that information must also be accurate. Validity in research implies of a research instrument, validity of research procedure (technique), and validity of the research findings (report).
3.6 Procedure for Data Collection
The researcher will introduce himself to all the respective authorities in Tanga and Morogoro regions where the Study will be conducted. After gaining the needed recognition from the relevant respondent s as well as administering the questionnaires in person to the heads of school the researcher will arrange the timetable so as conduct interviews to the sampled parents, teaching staff.
3.3.9 Data Analysis Plan
According to Kothari,(1990), data analysis is a process, which implies editing, coding classification and tabulations of collected data. In this proposal data that will obtained through various procedures will be summarized in table, moreover the no numerical data will be subjected to content analysis.
3.3.10 Ethical Consideration
According to Krishnaswami (2003) Issues of ethics arise primarily out of researcher’s relation with sponsors of research, those who permit access to sources of data and research participants /respondents. He further argued that, of all the ethical issues, the issues concerned with the respondents are far more important, since they constitute the research subject and their individuals from who data are obtained. Taking into consideration this fact the researcher will assure the respondent confidentiality on given information. For those respondents who will be supposed to fill in the questionnaires these will be directed to write down their names or titles.
REFERENCE
Best, J. and Kahn, J. (1993). Research In Education, New York: Allyn Bacon Inc.
Cameron, J. and odd, W. (1970) Society, School And Progress in Tanzania, Oxford: Pergamon Press.
Cohen, L., Marion, L. and Morrison, K. (2000). Research Methods in Education. London: Root Ledge.
Commonwealth (2000) Common Wealth Education Partnership. London: The Stationary Office.
Galabawa, J.C.J. (1995); Financing Education Development, With A Case of Tanzania, Department Of Education: University of Dar es salaam.
Galabawa, J.C.J ( 1989); “Mobilization allocation And Management Of Financial Resources For Education In Tanzania” pamphlet, Department of Education, University of Dar es Salaam.
Keya, S.O., Makau, B.F., and Man, J. (1989); Guidelines For The Formulation of Research Project Proposal. Nairobi, Oxford University Press.
Kothari, C. (1990); Research Methodology: Methods And Technology: New Delhi: Wiley Eastern Ltd.
Krishnaswami, O.R (2003). Methodology Of Research In Social Sciences, Mumbai: Himalaya Publishing House.
Masudi, A. (1986). The Contribution Of Religious Organizations To The development Of Private Schools In Tanzania, M.A. Thesis, UDSM.
Ministry of Education and Culture (2002a). Education Sector development Program. Dar es Salaam, Ministry of Education and Culture.
Omari, I. ( 2002). “Partnership In Education Provision”, PED, No.22, Faculty Of Education, University of Dar es Salaam.
Sammoff, J. (1994). Copping With Crisis, UNESCO, New York.
United Republic of Tanzania, (1995): Education and Training Policy, MOEC, Dar es Salaam.
Zymelman, M. (1973). Financing And Efficiency In Education: Reference For Administration And Policy Making. Boston: The Nimrod Press.
Appendix A
QUESTIONNAIRE FOR HEADS OF SCHOOL
A. INTRODUCTION
Lutheran Church for a long time has been active contributors in financing education in Tanzania, particularly Secondary education. The purpose of this study and this questionnaire is to solicit some information on financing in Secondary schools by Lutheran schools.
The information will help to have a better understanding on the issues related to finance and the sources of the funds used to run those secondary schools owned by Lutheran Church. The information that obtained shall confidentially be used for the above stated purpose only and not for malicious intentions.
Please note: Your name should not appear anywhere in this questionnaire.
Thank You.
B. background information of the school
1. Name of the School …...................................
2. Owner of the School …................................
3. District ….....................................................
4. In which year the School was started? …......
5. Number of Students enrolled in 2009?
Please, indicate in the table provided.
FORM BOYS GIRLS TOTAL
6. Number of teaching staff and their qualifications
Please, indicate in the table provided
Qualification Number of Teachers
1. Form Sis
2. Diploma ( Non-education)
3. Diploma in Education
4. University Degree (No-Education)
5. University Degree ( Education)
6. Postgraduate diploma in Education
7. Postgraduate degree ( Masters)
Male.................. Female.................. Total.......................
7. Number of Supporting Staff
C. PLEASE ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS BY CHOOSING THE MOST CORRECT RESPONSE TO YOU
1. What are the main sources of revenue used in running the school?
(a) School fees
(b) Contribution from parents
(c) Donors
(d) Funds rising
(e) Others, please specify..................................................................
…...............................................................................................
2. In your view, does the school have enough sources of revenue for its efficiency operation?
(a) Yes
(b) No
3. Who is involved in planning and making decision of the school budget? Please, choose the following:
(a) Heads of the school
(b) Teaching staffs and heads Owners
(c) Managers, Heads and School owners
(d) Members of the School board
(e) Others please specify...............................................................................................
4. Do you agree that, the revenue collected from various sources is well managed?
(a) Strongly Agree
(b) Agree
( c) Disagree
( d) Strongly disagree
5. Would you agree that adequate funding, its proper management and utilization increased Student performance?
(a) Strongly agree
( b) Agree
( c) Disagree
( d) Strongly Disagree
6. How would you value the relationship between adequate funds, its proper management and utilization towards Students performance?
(a) Very high
(b) High
(c) Fair
(d) Low
7. What are the future prospects of the School?
a) Looking for more resources
b) Looking for more Degree holder teachers
c) Increasing capacity building of the school
d) Any other
APPENDIX B
QUESTIONNAIRE FOR THE TEACHING STAFF
A. INTRODUCTION
Lutheran Church for a long time has been active contributors in financing education in Tanzania, particularly Secondary education. The purpose of this study and this questionnaire is to solicit some information on financing Secondary schools by Lutheran schools.
The information will help to have a better understanding on the issues related to finance and the sources of the funds used to run those secondary schools owned by Lutheran Church. The information that obtained shall confidentially be used for the above stated purpose only and not for malicious intentions.
Please note: Your name should not appear anywhere in this questionnaire.
Thank You.
B. PERSONAL INFORMATION
Name of the School...............................................................................
Owner of the School ….......................................................................
District.................................................................................................
1. Sex:
(a) Male
(b) Female
2. Age...............................................................................................
3. Marital status: Married_____ Single______Widow____
4. Religion/Denomination...............................................
5. What is your highest level of academic qualification? Please tick where it is appropriate
( a) Form Six
( b) Diploma ( Non-education)
( c) Diploma in education
( d) University degree ( Non-degree)
( e ) University degree Education
( f ) Postgraduate degree
6. Years of Teaching Experience …......................................................
7. Years of Teaching in this school.......................................................
B. PLEASE ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS BY CHOOSING THE MOST CORRECT TO YOU
1. What are the main sources of revenue used in running the School?
( a) School fees
( b) Contribution from Parents
( c ) Donors
( d ) Fundrising
( e ) Others, Please mention them …..................................................................
2. In your view, does the school have enough sources of finance for its efficiency operations?
( a ) Yes
( b ) No
3. Please choose the most appropriate opinion about the academic performance of the school?
( a ) The School performance poor
( b ) The School performance is average
( c ) The Performance is well
( d ) The performance is very well
4. Does the School management pay you well?
( a ) Yes
( b ) No
( c ) At least
( d ) Not at all
5. Do you agree that, adequate salaries have increased teachers' morale and good performance of the school in general?
( a ) Strongly agree
( b ) Agree
( c ) Disagree
( d ) Strongly disagree
( e ) I am not sure
6. Does the school management involve teaching Staff in the preparation of the budget? Please choose among the following;
( a ) Yes
( b ) No
( c ) Not Sure
APPENDIX C
INTERVIEW GUIDE FOR PARENTS/ GURDIANS
Q1. Why did you send your child in this school and not in other schools?
Q2. Does your child perform well academically?
Q3. How do you compare your child academic performance with other children who are studying in other schools?
Q4. How much fee do you pay annually?
Q5. Apart from school fees, what are other contributions that the school owes you?
Q6. In your view, does the school have enough sources of finance?
Q7. Who are involved in the process of financing education in this school?
Q8. Do you consider the fees and other sources of finance paid to school enough for running the school.
ELINEEMA MSHANA,
Masters Of Arts in Education
University of Dar es salaam
February 23, 2010
Dedicated to Michelle Holmes: Thank you For being my Friend
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